
Pass TT18 5 
Book '^T 



J 



Bench Work in Wood 



A COURSE OF 



STUDY AND PRACTICE 



DESIGNED 



FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 



BY 



W. F. M. GOSS, 

Professor of Practical Mechanics, Purdue University, 
Lafayette, Indiana. 



o>S><o 



BOSTON, U.S.A.: 

PUBLISHED BY GINN & COMPANY. 

1902 



G 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by 

W. F. M. GOSS, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 






Typography by J. S. Cushing & Co., Boston. 



Presswork by Ginn & Co., Boston. 



H-l^7^l/^ 



PREFACE. 



TO avoid confusion, the subject herein treated is con- 
sidered in three divisions. Part I. contains the essen- 
tial facts concerning common bench tools for wood; it 
describes their action, explains their adjustments, and shows 
how they may be kept in order. Part II. presents a course 
of practice by which ability to use the tools may be ac- 
quired j and Part III. discusses such forms and adaptations 
of joints as will meet the requirements of ordinary construc- 
tion. It is not expected that the student will complete Part 

I. before entering upon-Part II., or that he will finish Part 

II. before commencing Part III. He will find greater profit 
in using them together. For example, a shop exercise involv- 
ing the chisel (Part II.) should be accompanied or preceded 
by a study of the chisel (Part I.) ; again, the various forms 
of mortise and tenon joints (Part III.) will be better under- 
stood and more easily remembered, if considered during the 
time when types of such joints are under construction in the 
shops (Part II.). In the writer's experience with classes of 
students, one hour has been given to class-room work for every 
five hours given to shop work. By this apportionment. Parts 
I. and III. can be mastered in the class-room while Part II. 
is in progress in the shops. 

The equipment necessary for carrying out the course of 



Iv 



PREFACE. 



practice given in , Part II. is much less expensive than may at 
first appear. Besides a bench, a pair of trestles, and a bench- 
hook, the following-named tools are needed : — 



I 2-ft. Rule. 

I Framing- Square. 

I 7-inch Try- Square. 

1 8-inch Bevel. 

2 8-inch Marking-Gauges. 
I Chalk- Line, with Chalk. 
I Lead-Pencil. 

I Scriber. 

Firmer-Chisels, i each, ^'^, I", 
3tf in 5n 3// jff arid j^ff 

Gouges, I each, f ", J", f '', and 

I 22-inch Cross-cutting- Saw, 8 
teeth. 



I 24-inch Ripping- Saw, 6 teeth. 

I lo-inch Back-Saw. 

I 8-inch Drawing-Knife. 

I Fore-Plane. 

I Jack-Plane. 

I Smooth-Plane. 

I Set Auger-Bits, i" to i" by 

i6ths. 

I Bit-Brace. 

I Brad-Awl. 

I Carpenter's Hammer. 

I Mallet. 

I Nail-Set. 

I Oilstone. 



I pair 8-inch Dividers. 

I pair |-inch Matching- Planes. 

I Y%-inch Beading- Plane. 

I J-inch Beading- Plane. 

I Plow. 



I Hand-Scraper. 

J doz. Quill Bits, assorted from J" 

down. 
I Miter-Box. 
I Grindstone. 



If provision is to be made for more than one student, the 
items printed in small type need not be dupHcated. One set 
of these will suffice for any number less than thirty. 

The writer is indebted to Mr. M. Golden, of the School 
of Mechanics and Engineering, Purdue University, for the exe- 
cution of many of the drawings and for valuable suggestions. 

W. F. M. G. 
Purdue University, 
Lafayette^ Ind. 



CONTENTS. 



INTRODUCTION. — INTERPRETATION OF 
MECHANICAL DRAWINGS. 

PAGES 

I. Mechanical Drawings Defined. — 2. Plans. — 3. Elevations. — 
4. Method of showing Parts Obscured from Sight. — 5. Sections. 
Section Lines. Cross-hatching. Incomplete Sections. — 6. Bro- 
ken Drawings. — 7. Scale. — 8. Dimensions. Dimension Lines, 1-6 



PART I. — BENCH TOOLS. 

9. Bench. — 10. Bench-Stop. — 11. Vise. — 12. Bench-Hook. — 

13. Trestles 7-9 

Measuring and Lining Appliances. 

14. Early Standards of Length. — 15. English Standard Yard. — 16. 
United States Standard of Length. — 17. The Troughton Scale. 

— 18. Rules. — 19. Framing-Square. — 20. Board-measure Table. 

— 21. Brace-measure Table. — 22. Try-Square. — 23. Bevel. — 
24. "Miter-Square." — 25. Try-and-" Miter " Square. — 26. Di- 
viders. — 27. Scribing with Dividers. — 28. Combining Square 
and Rule. — 29. Combining Square and Bevel. — 30. Setting 
the Bevel at an Angle of 60 Degrees. — 31. Setting the Bevel at 
any Given Angle. — 32. Marking-Gauge. — 33. Mortise-Gauge. 

— 34. Panel-Gauge. — 35. Cutting-Gauge. — 36. Chalk-Line. 

— 37. Scriber. — 38. Pencil . 9-20 



VI CONTENTS. 



Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 

39. Firmer-Chisels. — 40. Framing-Chisels. — 41. Corner-Chisels. — 
42. Gouges. — 43. Chisel Handles. — 44. Drawing-Knife. — 45. 
Action of Cutting Wedges. — 46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in 
Chisel and Gouge. — 47. Grinding. — 48. Whetting , . , 20-26 

Saws. 

49. Efficiency. — 50. Form. — 51. Set. — 52. Size of Teeth. — 53. 
Ripping-Saw and Cross-Cutting-Saw Defined. — 54. Teeth of 
Ripping-Saws. — 55. Teeth of Cross-Cutting-Saws. — 56. Back- 
Saw. — 57. Compass-Saw 26-36 

Appliances for Filing and Setting Saws. 

58. Files. — 59. Sets for Bending the Tooth. — 60. Sets for Swedging 

theTooth. — 61. Clamps 36-38 

Saw Filing and Setting. 
62 Top- Jointing. — 63. Setting. — 64. Filing. — 65. Side -Jointing, 39-41 

Planes and Plane-like Tools. 

66. Description of Planes. — 67. Length of Stock. — 68. Plane-Iron. 
Angle of Cutting Wedge. — 69. Outline of Cutting Edge. — 70. 
Use of Different Bench Planes. — 71. Action of Smooth- Plane 
and Fore-Plane Compared. — 72. The Cap. — 73. Narrowness of 
Mouth. — 74. Adjusting the Iron. — 75. Jointing a Plane. — 76. 
Iron Planes. — 77. Planes of Wood and Iron Combined. — 78. 
Circular- Planes. — 79. Block-Planes. — 80. Spokeshaves. — 81. 
Rabbeting-Planes. — 82. Matching-Planes. — S;^. Hollows and 
Rounds. — 84. Beading-Planes. — 85. Plows. — 86. Combina- 
tion Planes. — 87. Scrapers 41-52 

Boring Tools. 

88. Augers. — 89. Auger-Bits. — 90. Sharpening Augers and Auger- 
Bits. — 91. Center-Bits. — 92. Expansive Bits. — 93. Small Bits. 
— 94. Bit-Braces. — 95. Angular Bit-Stock. — 96. Automatic 
Boring Tool 53""59 



CONTENTS. VU 

PAGES 

Miscellaneous Tools. 

97. Winding-Sticks. — 98. Hand Screw-Driver. — 99. Brace Screw- 
Driver. — 100. Hammer. — loi. Hatchet. — 102. Mallet. — 
103. Sand-Paper. — 104. Wooden Miter-Box. — 105. Iron 
Miter-Box. — 106. Clamps. — 107. Grindstone. — 108. Use of 
Water on a Grindstone. — 109. Truing a Grindstone. — no. 
Truing Devices for Grindstones. — in. Oilstones. — 112. Oil 
for Oilstones. — 113. Form of Oilstones. — 1 14. Oilstone Slips. 
— 115. Truing an Oilstone S9~^9 



PART II. — BENCH WORK. 

116. Good Lines a Necessity. — 117. Location of Points. — 118. 

Jointed Face. — 119. Working- Face 71-73 

EXERCISE No. i. — Measuring and Lining. 

120. Material. — 121. Spacing: Pencil and Rule. — 122. Lining: 
Pencil, and Framing-Square. — 123. Chalk-Lining. — 124. Lin- 
ing: Pencil, and Try-Square. — 125. Lining: Pencil and Bevel. 
— 126. "Gauging" Lines: Pencil and Rule. — 127, Spacing: 
Scriber and Rule. — 128. Lining: Scriber, and Try-Square. 
129. Lining: Scriber and Bevel. — 130. Gauge-Lining. — 131. 
Lining for Exercise No. 3 • . . . 73-79 

EXERCISE No. 2. — Chiseling and Gouging. 

132. Chiseling by Hand. — 133. Chiseling by Use of Mallet. — 134. 

Gouging 80-83 

EXERCISE No. 3. — Sawing. 

135. Handling the Saw. — 136. Guiding the Saw. — 137. Correct- 
ing the Angle of the Cut. — 138. Rip-Sawing. — 139. Cross- 
cutting 83-86 

EXERCISE No. 4. — Planing. 

140. Handling the Plane. — 141. Why a Plane Clogs. — 142. Joint- 
ing. — 143. Planing to a Square. — 144. Method of Performing 



VUl CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Similar Operations. — 145. Smooth Surfaces. — 146. Sand- 
Papering 86-91 

EXERCISE No. 5. — Box. 

147. Jointing to Width. — 148. Sawing to Length. — 149. Nailing. 
— 150. Hammer Marks. — 151. Setting Nails. — 152. With- 
drawing Nails. — 153. Fastening the Box Bottom. Finishing 
the Box. — 154. Planing End Grain 91--96 

EXERCISE No. 6. — Bench-Hook. 
155, lining and Sawing. — 156. Using the Auger-Bit .... 96-98 

« 
EXERCISE No. 7. — Halved Splice. 

157. Lining. — 158. Value of Working-Face Illustrated. — 159. Cut- 
ting the Joint. — 160. Sawing a Fit. — 161. Toeing Nails , 99-102 

EXERCISE No. 8. — Splayed Splice. 
162. Lining. — 163. Cutting and Finishing the Joint .... 103, 104 

EXERCISE No. 9 — Simple Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 

164. Lining. — 165. Cutting the Mortise. — 166. Cutting the Tenon. 

167. Making a Pin. — 168. Drawboring 104-110 

EXERCISE No. 10. — Keyed Mortise-and-Tenon Joint. 
169. Lining and Cutting. — 170. Key 110,111 

EXERCISE No. 11. — Plain Dovetail. 

171. Lining and Cutting. — 172. Gluing. — 173. Short Method of 

Lining and Cutting the Joint *. . . . 112,113 

EXERCISE No. 12. — Lap Dovetail. 
174. Lining and Cutting 114, 115 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGES 

EXERCISE No. 13. — Blind Dovetail. 
175. Lining and Cutting. — 176. A Modified Form of the Joint . 115-117 

EXERCISE No. 14. — Frame and Panel. 

177. Panel Door Described. — 178. Making the Joint between Stile 
and Rail. — 179. Cutting Chamfers. — 180. Keying the Joint. 
— 181. Finishing the Panel. Fastening Panel to Frame. — 
182. Inserting Screws. — 183. Using the Brad-Awl . . , 117-121 

EXERCISE No. 15. — Frame and Panel 

184. Making Joint between Stile and Rail. — 185. Plowing. — 186. 

Beading. — 187. Forming the Panel 121-124 



PART III. — ELEMENTS OF WOOD CON- 
STRUCTION. 

TIMBER. 

188. Timber Defined. — 189. Felling. — 190. Seasoning. — 191. 
Shrinkage. — 192. Swelling. — 193. Warping. — 194. Effect of 
Shrinkage on Cross-section. — 195. Effect of Shrinkage on 
Length 124-129 

CARPENTRY. 

196. Work of Carpenter and Joiner Compared. — 197. Compres- * 
sional, Tensional, and Cross-Strain Defined. — 198. Effect of 
Cross-Strain. Neutral Axis. Relation between the Depth of a 
Timber and its Resistance to Cross-Strain. — 199. Rankine's 
Principles concerning Joints and Fastenings . , . . . 130-132 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGES 

Joints Connecting Timbers in the Direction of their Length. 

200. Lapped Joint. — 201. Fished Joint. — 202. Scarfed Joints. — 
203. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Compression. — 204. Scarfed 
Joint for Resisting Tension. — 205. Scarfed Joint for Resisting 
Cross-Strain. — 206. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and 
Compression. — 207. Scarfed Joint for Resisting Tension and 
Cross-Strain .,♦,,....♦ I33-I35 



Joints Connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 

208. Halving. — 209. Notching. — 210. Cogging. — -211. Mortise- 
and-Tenon Joints. — 212. Mortise and Tenon Joining a Vertical 
to a Horizontal Timber. — 213. Mortise and Tenon Joining 
a Horizontal to a Vertical Timber. — 214. Mortise and Tenon 
Joining One Horizontal Timber to Another. Tusk Tenon 136-139 



Miscellaneous Joints. 

215. Oblique Mortise and Tenon. — 216. Bridle- Joint. — 217. Tie- 
Joint. — 218. Chase-Mortise 139-141 



JOINERY. 

219. Joinery Described 141, 142 

Beads and Moldings. 

220. Beads. — 221. Use of Beads. — 222. Chamfer. — 223. Stop 
Chamfer. — 224. Moldings Described. — 225. Round Nose. — 
226. Some Typical Forms of Moldings. Fillet. — 227. Joints 

in Joinery Defined 142-145 



Heading-Joints, or Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of 
THEIR Length. 

228. Square Heading- Joint. Splayed Heading- Joint 145 



CONTENTS. XI 



Joints Uniting Pieces in the Direction of their Width. 

229. Their Office. — 230. Butt-joint. Filleted Joint. Rabbeted 
Joint. Matched Joint. — 231. Glued Butt-joint. — 232. Cleat- 
ing. — 233. Side Cleats. — 234. End Cleats. — 235. Relieving 
Cleats from Strain 145-1^^ 



Joints Uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 

236. Butt-joint. — 237. Miter-Joint. — 238. Strengthening of Miter- 
Joints. — 239. Dovetail- Joints. — 240. Proportions of Mortise- 
and-Tenon Joints. — 241. Single and Double Tenons. — 242. 
Haunching. — 243. Four Tenons. — 244. Mortises and Tenons 
at an Angle in the Work. — 245. Modifications of Mortise-and- 
Tenon Joints , 148-152 



Paneling. 

246. Panel. — 247. Frame. — 248. Joints between Panel and 

Frame 152-155 

FASTENINGS. 

249. Pins. — 250. Wedges. — 251. Blind- Wedging. — 252. Keys. 
— 253. Dowels. — 254. Nails. — 255. Size of Nails. — 256. 
Brads. — 257. Tacks. — 258. Screws. — 259. Glue . . . 155-161 



INTRODUCTION. 



o>^o 



IB^ig. 1 




INTERPRETATION OF MECHANICAL DRATVINGS. 

I. Most of the illustrations presented with the following 
chapters are in the form of Mechanical Drawings. To the 
novice, these may appear confusing ; but careful attention to 
some of the principles underlying their con- 
struction will enable him readily to interpret 
their meaning. 

A mechanical dra\ving, as distinguished from 
a perspective drawing, or picture, instead of 
giving all the characteristics of an object at a 
glance, presents them in detail, giving in one 
view one set of elements, in another view another set of 
elements, and so on, until the form of the ob- 
ject is accurately defined. 

For example. Fig. i is a perspective view 
of an object which is represented mechanically 
by Fig. 2. By Fig. i it will at once be seen 
that the object represented is a cylinder. In 
Fig. 2 there is first presented a plan^ showing 
that the object is cyhndricalj and, secondly, 
an elevation, showing the height of the cylinder. 
From the combination of these two views, the 
solid may be as easily imagined as from^ Fig. i, 
and the knowledge obtained of it is much more 
definite. 

A perspective view of an object is that which elevation. 
is had by looking from some one point, as A, Fig. 3, while a 
view represented by a mechanical drawing supposes the ob- 







BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



server to be looking from an infinite number of points, and 
always in parallel lines, as indicated by A, Fig. 4. 

2. A Plan of any object ^^s- 3 

represents it as it would 
appear if, standing on its 
natural base, it were looked JC^ 
down upon vertically, as 
indicated by the arrows A, 
Fig. 5. If the object, as a rectangular block, has no fixed 
base, any one of its faces may be taken as such. 



'Wis, 4 






Wi^ 



TTig. T' 



3. An Elevation of any object represents it as it would 
appear if, standing on its natural base, it were looked upon in a 
horizontal direction, as indicated by 
arrows B, Fig. 5. 

The elevation is always at right 
angles to the plan. There may be 
several elevations of the same object, 
each differing from the others as the 
point of observation changes. For 
example, the plan and elevation of the object rep- 
resented by Fig. 6, are usually made as shown by 
Fig. 7, but they may be made as shown by Fig. 8 or 
Fig. 9. 




ELEVATION. 

FACE B. 



INTRODUCTION. 



Fig-. 8 



Fig. 9 





These angular views, indeed, cannot be avoided when the form 
they represent is so compHcated that its faces are neither par- 
allel, nor at right angles to each 
other. Fig. lo is a perspective 
view of an object which is repre- 
sented mechanically by Fig. ii. 
It is evident that if one face of A 
is shown in the elevation, two 
faces of B will appear; if one 
face of B is shown, two of A will 
appear. 

In the representation of simple 
objects, the plan is in some cases 
omitted, and two elevations em- 
ployed. These may be designated as side elevation and end 
elevatio7i, which terms signify an elevation of a side and an 
elevation of an end. For 
example, if we consider the 
surface-^ the base of Fig. 6, 
a side elevation would be 
equivalent to the elevation 
Fig. 7, and the end elevation 
would become equivalent to 
the plan of the same figure. 

4. Method of showing Parts obscured from 
Sight. — The outline of details, which in any 
view of an object are hidden, is frequently 
shown by dotted lines. Thus, in Fig. 12, the 
general outline of the plan and elevation shows a rectangular 
block ; if the circle in the plan is associated with the dotted 
lines in the elevation, it is not difficult to imagine a round hole 
extending through the center of the block. If the hole pene- 
trates to only half the depth of the block, dotted lines will be 
placed as shown by Fig. 13 ; if the hole is larger at the top 



Fig. 10 



Fig 





BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



than at the bottom, the drawing will appear as shown by Fig. 14 ; 
if smaller at the top, as shown by Fig. 15. In Fig. 16 dotted 



JTi^. 13 




Kig, 13 




Fig. 14r 




A^' 



Fig. IS 



-t^H- 



^ 

PLAN 



! 

ELkVATI,6;N 






TTig. le 

— 1 i — 1 L 



lines indicate the diameter of a bolt holding the two pieces A 
and B together. 

5. Sections. — In comphcated drawings, the use of dotted 
lines to indicate hidden parts is more confusing than helpful. 
In such cases it is customary to imagine the 
object cut, as if it were sawed asunder, and 
-. the surface thus produced exposed. Such 
a surface is called a " section." 

Complete sections show not only the sur- 
face produced by the cut, but the outline of other portions of 
the object which may be seen beyond. See lines a, a, Fig. 17. 

Thus, section AB^ Fig. 1 7, is that which 
would appear if the ring were to be cut on 
the line AB (Plan, Fig. 17), and the cut 
surface made to appear in elevation. 

Section lines on a drawing show the loca- 
tion of sections. They are usually made in 
color (red or blue), or in dotted bkck, with 
a colored line on each side. Each section 



ITig. 17 




iN.77"'S 



Sec. A B. 



is designated by the letters of its section line. 



INTRODUCTION. 




Cross-hatching is a term applied to the uniformly spaced 
parallel lines which are employed to indicate the cut surface 
of a section. See Fig. i8. Trig, is 

Different pieces of material appearing in the 
same section are cross-hatched at different 
angles, as in Fig. 19, which represents a cross- 
section of a lead-pencil ; and different kinds of 
material are frequently indicated by cross-hatch- 
ing in different colors. 

Incomplete sections show only the cut surface, to the 

exclusion of all other portions of the object. It is 

common to place such sections on the section lines, 

and omit the letters. See Fig. 20. 

A single view of a symmetrical object may be made partly 

in section, and partly in elevation, as in the drawing of the 

goblet. Fig. 21. 



SECTION A B, FIG. 15. 



TTig. 19 



6. Broken Drawings. — To economize 
space in representations of simple objects, a 
portion of the drawing 
is sometimes omitted. 
In such cases, that which 
is given indicates the 
character of the omitted 
portion, and the dimen- 
sion figures show its ex- 
tent. An example is 
given in Fig. 22. 



E^ig. SI 





ELEVATION.! SECTION, 



7. Scale. — Drawings are made either ^^ full-sized " or "to 
scale." A full- sized drawing is one in which every dimension 
agrees exactly with the similar dimension of the object it repre- 
sents. A drawing to scale is one in v/hich every dimension 
bears the same fractional relation to the similar dimension of 
the object it represents. When a drawing is -^^\\\ the size of 



6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the object, it is said to be on a scale of i inch to the foot, or, 
as frequently written, i in. = i ft. ; if |th the size, as 2 in. = i ft., 
and so on. The scale 6 in. = i ft. is often expressed as " half 
size." 

8. Dimensions. — The various dimensions of an object repre- 
sented are shown on the drawing by appropriate figures, which 
Fig. q;3 express feet when followed by ', and inches 

when followed by ^\ Thus 2' should be read 
as two feet, and 2'' as two inches. 12' yf' is 

the same as twelve feet and seven and three- 
quarters inches. 

The figures always show the dimensions of the thing repre- 
sented ; they do not agree with the dimensions of the drawing 
except when the latter is full-sized. See dimension figures in 
Fig. 23. 



.2^ 

HALF SIZE. 




Dimension lines, — Dimension figures are always placed on, or 
near, lines along which they apply. In drawings these lines are 
usually in color (red), but may be dotted black, as in Fig. 23. 
When convenient, they are placed within the outline of the 
drawing ; but if the drawing is small or crowded, they are placed 
at one side, and are connected with the parts they Hmit by per- 
pendicular, colored or dotted lines. Two arrow-heads, one on 
each side of the dimension figure, locate the points between 
which it applies. Several dimensions may be given on the same 
line, each being limited by its own arrow-heads. 



PART I. 



o>d<o 



BENCH TOOLS. 



g. Bench. — A simple form of bench is shown by Fig. 24. 
Its length A may vary from 6' upwards, according to the length 
of work to be done. Its height B should also be regulated by 
the character of the work — high for light work, and low for 
heavy — as well as by the height of the person who is to use it. 
Carpenters' benches are usually about 33" high, while those of 
cabinet and pattern makers are from 2" to 4'' higher. 



Fig. S4r 



I 
B 

I 

I 



.^JA 






TrMm 






Scale, M = l' 



END ELEVATION. 




-A 

SIDE ELEVATION. 



The surface of the bench, particularly of the thick plank that 
forms the outer edge of it, should be perfectly flat — a true 
plane. When in use, care must be taken to protect it from 
injury. It should never be scarred by the chisel or cut by the 
saw. If oiled and shellaced, it is likely to be better kept. 

10. The Bench-Stop a is intended to hold the work while 
it is being planed. It may be simply a piece of wood about 
2"x 2", projecting through a mortise in the top of the bench; 



8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



li'ig. SS 




Fig. S6 



but it is far better to have some form of iron fitting, many of 
which are supplied by the trade. The char- 
acteristics of all of them are well illustrated 
by the one shown in Fig. 25. The frame 
A is let into the bench even with its sur- 
face; The hook C is held in position at 
any height above the bench by the action 
of the screw B. C may be fastened even 
with the surface of the bench, or removed 
entirely. 

II. The Vise d, Fig. 24, is of a form that, for general pur- 
poses, has long been in use. To hold the work well, the jaw d 
should be as nearly as possible parallel to the face g, against 
which it acts. If it is not parallel, the space between should 

be less at the top than at the bot- 
tom — an arrangement which in- 
sures a much better grip upon the 
work than the v^pposite conditions. 
Adjustment^ for parallelism are 
made by changing the pin c from 
one hole to another. There are 
various mechanical appliances for 
preserving automatically the paral- 
lelism of this vise, but none are in common use. Iron vises can 
be had which are adapted to the same uses as the one just 
described; they maintain their parallehsm, and are easier and 
more perfect in action. 

An iron bench vise, such as is shown by Fig. 26, is extremely 
useful for small work, and, if expense is not to be considered, 
should supplement the vise d, in which case it may be located 
on the bench at H. 

The holes, e, in the bench are for the reception of a plug, 
which may be used to support one end of a long piece of work 
while the other end is held by the vise. 




BENCH TOOLS. 



12. A Bench-Hook, Fig. 178, applied to the bench as 
shown by Fig. 167, provides a stop to prevent work from 
sHding across the bench. The fiat faces which rest on the 
bench and receive the work, should be true planes and par- 
allel. A length of from 14" to 16" is convenient, though 
bench-workers frequently have several of different lengths. 

13. Trestles, or ^'horses," are used in various v/ays to sup- 
port material, and also 
to take the place of the 
bench when large pieces 
of material are to be 
operated upon. A con- 
venient form is shown 
by Fig. 27. 




Measuring and Lining Appliances. 

14. Early Sta^':.dards of Length. — To meet the earhest 
need of units of mv. i^ure, it was natural to .adopt the means 
nearest at hand, and common consent, no doubt, brought into 
use the pace, the forearm, or cubit, the foot, the hand, the nail, 
etc. These were certainly convenient enough, for wherever he 
might go, every individual carried his units of measure with him. 
Variations in their length, however, were inevitable, and many 
attempts were made to reduce them to a standard. An old 
English statute, the substance of which has descended to 
American arithmetics of modern date, enacts "that three 
barleycorns, round and dry, make an inch, twelve inches make 
a foot, three feet a yard, etc. ; and there seems to be no doubt 
that this mode of obtaining a standard was actually resorted to. 
But setting aside the objection due to the varying size of the 
individual grains, — unless the average of a large number be 
taken, — it is so difficult to know how much of the sharp end 
of a grain of barley must be removed to make it ' round,' that 



lO BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

the definition is not of much value. Nevertheless, in spite 
of numerous attempts at legislation on the subject, this, down 
to the year 1824, was the only process by which the standard 
yard of this country [England] could, if lost, be legally re- 
covered." ^ 

Previous to the institution of a national standard of length 
in Great Britain, influential men and prominent societies pro- 
vided themselves with so-called standards, which were accepted 
and used in different localities. By comparison with many of 
these, the present standard of length was made, and its length 
defined by law as the British standard yard. From this, about 
fifty copies have been made. Two of these copies were in 1855 
sent to the United States, and have since been in the keeping 
of the Coast Survey. They are described as follows : — 

15. " Each standard of length is a solid bar 38 inches long 
and I inch square, in transverse section. One inch from each 
extremity a cylindrical well, one-half inch in diameter, is sunk 
one-half inch below the surface. At the bottom of the wells, 
in each bar, is a gold pin about o.i inch in diameter, upon 
which are drawn three transversal and two longitudinal lines. 
The wells are protected by metal caps. The length of one 
EngHsh yard at a specified temperature is defined by the dis- 
tance from the middle transversal line in one well to the middle 
transversal line in the other, using the parts of those lines which 
are midway between the longitudinal lines." ^ 

16. The United States Standard of Length. — " The stand- 
ard yard of Great Britain was lawful in the colonies before 
1776. By the Constitution of the United States the Congress 
is charged with fixing the standard of weights and measures, 
but no such enactment has ever been made by Congress, and 



1 Shelley's *' Workshop Appliances." 

2 Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. 



BENCH TOOLS. II 

therefore that yard which was standard in England previous to 
1776 remains the standard yard of the United States to this 
day."i 

17. "The Troughton Scale is a bronze bar with an inlaid 
silver scale, made for the survey of the coast of the United 
States by Troughton, of London. The bar is nearly 86 inches 
long, 2^ inches wide, and one- half inch thick. A thin strip of 
silver, a little more than o.i inch wide, is inlaid with its surface 
flush with the brass, midway the width of the bar. It extends 
the whole length of the bar, save where it is interrupted by two 
perforations, one near each end. Two parallel lines about o.i 
inch apart are ruled longitudinally on the silver. The space 
between them is divided transversely into tenths of inches. 

"The zero mark of the graduations is about 3.2 inches from 
one end of the bar. Immediately over it is engraved an eagle, 
surmounted by the motto, £! Plurihiis Uniim, and thirteen 
stars. Below the ^y^ to 42-inch divisions is engraved ^Troughton, 
London, 18 14.' The bar is also perforated by a hole above 
the scale and near the 40-inch division, and by one below it, 
between the words ' Troughton ' and ^ London.' . . . 

"The yard of 36 inches, comprised between the 27th and 
63d inch of the Troughton scale, which was found by Hassler's 
comparison to be equal to the average ^^6 inches of the scale, is 
the actual standard yard of the United States, having been 
adopted by the Treasury Department as such in 1832, on the 
recommendation of Mr. Hassler.^"^ 

18. Rules are measuring strips, and are ^^^^iFig. ss 
usually made of boxwood. Their size is 
expressed by their length in inches or feet, 
as a " 6-inch rule," a " 2-foot rule." 

For convenience, they are made to fold, 

1 Report of the United States Coast Survey, 1877, Appendix No. 12. 

2 Hassler was the first superintendent of the United States Coast vSurvey. 




12 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



'l9''^l8."l7''-l6'l'l5!'l4''-^U-'''l2'-''ll'-J 

, =, • -. ,- ■- ,. j3 6 365_0.9j|3*6.67 3°»2 4'3j'38.19?t33,95j! 29.70^,1 Cj 

'hV,i,^i^i,VM,VM,i^,vl^iriVi,i^i-,i^,„1i,l^ni^,-,i!i, 



Eig. S9 



and one is said to be "two-fold" when made of two pieces, 
" four-fold " when made of four, and "six-fold" when made of 
six pieces. Fig. 28 shows a four-fold rule. 

To preserve the rule from wear, the better class are "bound" 
by a strip of brass which covers each edge ; others are " half- 
bound," hav- 
ing only one 
edge covered; 
and still others 
are "unbound," having no edge protection. 

Carpenters' rules are usually graduated to eighths 
of inches on one side, and to sixteenths on the other. 
Besides the regular graduations, other numbers are 
frequently represented ; but their purpose is so varied 
that their interpretation cannot be given here. 

19. The Framing-Square, Fig. 29, as its name 
implies, is intended primarily for use in framing, and 
would seem to belong to the builder rather than to 
the bench-worker ; but its range of usefulness makes 
it valuable to any worker in wood. 

All but the very cheapest are of steel, and many are 
nickel-plated. The nickel prevents rust, and gives 
clearness to the lines and figures. The figures of the 
graduations along the several edges, begin at the angle 
and extend to the ends of the legs. In addition to 
these, there is on one side a line of figures beginning 
at the end of the long leg and extending to the angle. 
On the reverse side, represented by Fig. 29, there is 
on the long leg a board-measure table, and on the 
short leg a brace-measure table. 



20. The Board-measure Table. — Lumber is sold by the 
square foot, and the value of the table lies in its giving the area 
of a board, or of any surface, in square feet, when its length in 
feet and its breadth in inches are known. 



BENCH TOOLS. 1 3 

The figures that belong to the outside graduations, i, 2, 3, 
and so on up to 24^ are employed to represent the width of the 
board to be measured, and all the lengths included in the table 
are given in a column under the figure 12 belonging to the out- 
side graduations. On this square, Fig. 29, they are 14, 10, 
and 8. To find the surface of any boara, first look in the 
column under 12 for a number representing its length, and 
having found it, run the finger along in the same line until it 
comes under that figure of the outside graduations that corre- 
sponds to the board's width. The figure nearest the finger in 
this Hne represents the area of the board in feet. 

Example i . — How many square feet are there in a board 
10' long and 7" wide? 

Under 12 of the outside graduations, in Fig. 29, the. 10 is 
in the second line, and the figure in this line most nearly 
under 7 of the outside graduations, is 6, w^hich represents the 
area required, in feet. 

Exa77iple 2. — What is the surface of a board whose length 
is 8' and whose width is 21"? 

As in Example i, look under 12 of the outside graduations 
for 8 ; in this line, under 2 1 of the outside graduations, will be 
found the 14 which represents the area required. 

The reason that the column under 12, forming, as it does, 
a part of the body of the table, is taken to represent the length, 
will be clear when it is remembered that any board 12" wide 
will contain as many surface feet as it contains linear feet ; that 
is, a board 12'' wide and 14' long will have an area of 14 square 
feet. The figures given under 12 correspond to the usual 
length to which lumber is cut, and on most squares they are 
8, 10, 14, 16, and 18; and, since the figure representing the 
area differs from the figure representing the length only be- 
cause the width varies, we must go to the right or the left 
of the column under 12, when the width is greater or less 
than 12. 



14 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



ITig. 30 




21. The Brace-measure Table gives the length of each side 
of several right-angled triangles. A brace in carpentry is a 

timber inserted diagonally between two other 
timbers which usually are at right angles to 
each other. If it is required to insert a brace 
C between A and B^ Fig. 30, its length may 
be determined by using the table on the 
framing- square, which, within certain limits, 
gives the carpenter the length of C when the 
lengths A and B are known. 

Taking the group of figures nearest the end of the short 
leg for the illustration, suppose A (length ab) = ^f^ and B 
(length ^^) = 57", then C (length bc)= 8o.6I'^ By the next 
group, it will be seen that if A and ^ each equal 54'' or 54', 
C will equal 76.31'', or 76.31'. The two figures representing 
the length of the two short sides of the triangle, are always given 
one above the other, and the figure representing the length of 
the third side, to the right of the other two. 

22. A Try-Square is shown by Fig. 31. The beam A in 
this case is of wood, faced by a brass strip C to protect it from 

wear. The blade B, at right angles 
to the beam, is of steel. The gradua- 
tions on the blade, together with its 
thinness, make this square more con- 
venient for short measurements than 
the rule. 

Try- squares 

are made from 4" to 12", their size 

being expressed by the length of the 

blade. 

23. The Bevel, often improperly 
called "bevel-square," is made up of 
parts similar to those of the try-square, 



Fig. 31 





BENCH TOOLS. 



IS 




as will be seen by Fig. 32. The blade is adjustable to any 
angle with the beam; the thumb-screw C fastens it when 
set. 

The size of a bevel is expressed by the length of its beam in 

inches. 

24. <* Miter-Squares" derive their 
name from the purpose they are in- 
tended to serve. A "miter" in con- 
struction is one-half of a right angle, 
or an angle of 45 degrees. In the 
"miter-square" the blade, as in the 
try-square, is permanently set, but 
at an angle of 45 degrees, as shown 
by Fig. 33. 

The bevel, while neither so con- 
venient nor so accurate, is often 
made to answer the purpose of the "miter-square.'' 

25. A Combination Try-and-" Miter " 
Square is shown by Fig. 34. This, while 

perfect as a try- 
^ square, is trans- 
formed into a "mi- 
ter-square " when 
the face of the 
beam AB is placed 
against the work- 
ing-face (119) of the material. 

26. Dividers are much used in spacing 
and in laying off circles and arcs of circles. 
The form shown by Fig. 35 is known as "arc and set-screw 
dividers." The two points are held at any desired distance 
from each other by the action of the set-screw A upon the 
arc B. In setting, the final adjustment may be made more 



Fig. 34 





i6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



delicate by use of the thumb-nut C, which, acting in opposi- 
tion to the spring Z>, shortens the arc B or allows the spring tc 
lengthen it, as may be required. 



Fig. 36 




27. Scribing with Dividers: Example i.— The four legs 
of a table are of unequal length, and prevent it from standing 
even. Scribe the legs to length. 

First, by means of blocks or wedges under the shorter legs, 
make the top of the table to stand parallel to some plane sur- 
face, as a bench top, or even the floor if 
it is in good condition, either of which 
may be designated as F\ Fig. 36. Set 
the dividers equal to or greater than the 
height of the thickest blocking, so that 
while one point, a, touches the leg, the 
other, b, will rest upon F in the same vertical line. Move the 
dividers, keeping b on F, and producing by ^ a line on the leg, as 
ca, which, if the dividers are properly handled, will be parallel 
to the surface F, Without changing the dividers, mark at least 
two adjoining faces on each leg, and cut the legs to line. 

It is evident that hues thus scribed will all be at an equal 
distance from the surface F\ and the table top, having been 

made parallel to F^ it 
follows that the lines 
scribed are parallel to 
the top,^ or that the 
length of the four legs, 
as defined by the lines, 
is the same. 

Example 2. — It is required to fit the end of a board B to 
the outline abed oi A^ Fig. 37. Place the board in the position 
shown, and set the dividers at a distance equal to x. With 
one point at a and the other at <?, let them be moved together, 
one following the outline abed which the other produces on B^ 



Fi 




BENCH TOOLSo 



17 



as shown. Cut to line, and the board will fit. When sharp 
angles, as at /, enter into the outHne, greater accuracy will 
be attained if the point / is located by measuring from the 
base line /^/. 




':si";''"si'''i"T 



28. Combining Measuring Appliances. — To find the hypot- 
enuse of a right-angled triangle when the other two sides are 
known, use the rule and framing- 
square, as shown by Fig. 38. 
Suppose in Fig. 30 the length 
ab = ^y\ and the length ac 
= 9I-" ; to find the length be, 
apply one end of the rule to 
the oi-" mark on one leer of the ._ 

■^ ° /I'l'Mi^l'iUJIiL'l'I'i 

square, and bring its edge to r- °^ ' ' '■- 
comcide with the 5f " mark on ^^^^^^-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
the other leg, as shown by Fig. 38. The reading of the rule 
where it coincides with the 5I-" mark, or io|^", will be the length 
be. The length thus found will be sufficiently accurate for 
many purposes. If the distance to be measured is in feet, 
imagine every inch on the square to be equal to a foot, and 
read the result in feet. 

If the proportions of the triangle are very large, the figure 
may be drawn at full size on the shop floor, and the extent of 
each part determined by direct measurement. 



■ iriiifhu^iiii^hiH 



29. Setting the Bevel. — To 

set the bevel at a miter (an angle 

of 45°), place the beam against 

one leg of the square and adjust 

the blade so that it will agree with 

equal distances on both legs, as 

4" and 4", Fig. 39. Any distance may be taken, but it must be 

the same on both legs. 




i8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



ITig. 4=0 




'^ 



The carpenter frequently describes an angle to which the bevel 
may be set as '^ i in 2 " or " i in 4," by which is meant that 
while the beam is applied, as shown by Fig. 39, the blade corre- 
sponds to the i" mark on one leg, and the 2" mark on the other ; 
or to the i'' mark on one leg, and the 4" mark on the other. 

30. To set the Bevel at an Angle of 60, and of 120 De- 
grees. — In Fig. 40 the board A has a jointed edge a ; at any 

distance from a, gauge a 
line be. From any point 
on be, with any radius, 
use the dividers to strike 
the arc be -, with same 
radius, strike from b the 
arc/. Place the beam 
of the bevel against face 
a, move blade till it co- 
incides with the points b and/, and the bevel is set at an angle of 
60 degrees with one side of beam, and 1 20 degrees with the other. 
60 degrees is the measure of the angle between any two faces of 
an equilateral triangle, and 120 degrees, of the angle between 
any two faces of a regular hexagon ; for these reasons, the bevel 
set at these angles is often of use in construction. 

31. To set the Bevel at any given Angle. — If an attempt 

is made to set the bevel di- 
rectly from hnes on paper, it 
will be found difficult to de- 
termine when the tool agrees 
with the drawing. It is better 
to transfer such an angle to a 
board, from the working-edge 
of which the bevel may be 
set. Thus, if it is required 
to set the bevel at the angle 
abe, Fig. 41, a board, as A, 
should be lined as follows : 

from the working-edge gauge the line a^b^ ; with the dividers, 



i^ig.4.1 




BENCH TOOLS. 



19 



Fig. 42 



at any convenient radius, describe from h^ the arc e^^ ; with the 
same radius describe from b the arc ed\ set the dividers so that 
with one point on e the other will fall on/, and lay off this dis- 
tance on e^d\ locating f ; connect b^ and /' ; the angle ^'^V 
will be equal to abc, i\s a^b^ is by construction parallel to the 
working-edge of the board, the angle between the working- 
edge and ^V is equal to the angle abc. If, then, with the beam 
of the bevel on the working- edge, the blade is made to coin- 
cide with bU\ the bevel will be set at the angle abc, 

32. Marking-Gauges. — Fig. 42 shows the usual form of a 
marking-gauge. The steel point, or "spur," e, should be filed 
to a narrow edge, so that it 
will make a sharp line. 

The graduations along the 
length of the beam B, are 
not to be depended on un- 
less it is known that the 
zero line is exactly opposite ^-^"^'"'^^^ 
the spur. When the zero mark and the spur do not agree, as 
is frequently the case, it is necessary in setting the gauge to 
measure from the head A to the spur <?. A when set, is pre- 
vented from moving on ^, by the screw C 

33. A Mortise-Gauge, shown by Fig. 43, has two spurs, a 
being fastened to the beam, and >^ to a brass sHde which works 
in a groove in the beam. The 

spur b may be set at any dis- ^°* 

tance from a by the action of 
the screw c. The gauge may, 
therefore, be set to line both 
sides of a mortise at the same time. 

34. Panel-Gauges, Fig. 44, are for use in making lines at a 
considerable distance from the working-edge. 





25 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



The length of the head A is sufficiently increased to receive 
good support from the working-edge, which guides it. 




35. Cutting-Gauges, having a long, thin blade in the place 
of the usual spur, are in form similar to that shown by Fig. 42. 
They are useful in cutting strips of thin material. 

36. Chalk-Lines are very seldom used in bench work, but 
are often convenient in applying such work to larger structures. 
The cord used in lining should be as small as is consistent with 
strength. On most surfaces blue chalk is more easily seen than 
whitCo 

37. The Scriber, as known to the trade, takes a variety of 
forms, from that of an awl to that of a peculiar short-bladed 
knife. A well-kept pocket knife of convenient size will be 
found a good substitute for any of them. 

38. The Pencil used in Hning on board surfaces should be 
soft, and kept well-pointed by frequent sharpening. 

Chisels and Chisel-like Tools. 

39. Firmer-Chisels have blades wholly of steel. They are 
fitted with light handles and are intended for hand use only. 

ITig. 4rS 



40. Framing-Chisels have heavy iron blades overlaid with 
steel. The handles are stout and are protected at the end by 
ferrules. This chisel is used in heavy mortising and framing, 
and is driven to its work by the mallet. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



21 



Compare Fig. 45, which shows a firmer-chisel, with Fig. 46, 
which shows a framing-chisel. 



Fig. 46 



The size of chisels is indicated by the width of the cutting 
edge, and varies from -J" to i" by sixteenths, and from ij" to 
2" by fourths. 

41. A Corner-Chisel is shown by Fig. 47. Its two cutting 
edges are at right angles to each other, and this form renders 

irig.47' 




it useful in making inside angles, as, for example, the comers of 
a mortise. Its handle is like that of a framing- chisel. The size 
of a comer-chisel is indicated by the length of one cutting edge. 

42o Gouges have blades that, throughout their length, are 
curved in section, as shown by Fig. 48. When the bevel forming 

ir-ig. 48 




the cutting edge is on the concave side, they are called "inside 
gouges " ; when on the convex side, " outside gouges." For 
general purposes the outside gouge is most convenient, and the 
carpenter, with his limited facilities for the care of tools, can 
more easily keep it in order. The size of a gouge is indicated 
by the length of a straight line extending from one extremity of 
the cutting edge to the other. 



22 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

43. Handles for chisels, gouges, and similar tools, are of two 
general classes, light and heavy ; the former are intended prin- 
cipally for hand use, and are shown in connection with the firmer- 
chisel and gouge ; the latter, which are re- enforced at the end 
by a ferrule that they may withstand blows from the mallet, are 
illustrated in connection with the framing- chisel and the corner- 
chisel. 

Handles may be shank-fitted, like the one shown by Fig. 48, 
or socket-fitted, as shown by Fig. 47. The better class of tools 
have socket-fitted handles. 

44. The Drawing-Knife, shown by Fig. 49, is in reality a 
wide chisel, though it is quite different from a chisel in form. 




The handles are so attached as to stand in advance of the cut- 
ting edge, which is drawn into the work, instead of being pushed 
into it, as is the case with a. chisel. The drawing-knife is very 
effective on narrow surfaces that are to be considerably reduced. 
The size is indicated by the length of the cutting edge. 

45. The Action of Cutting Wedges. — Every cutting tool 
is a wedge more or less acute. In action it has two operations 
to perform : first, cutting the fibers of the wood ; and, secondly, 
widening the cut in order that the tool may penetrate into the 
material, and thus allow the cutting edge to go on with its 
work. To widen the cut, the fibers of the wood must be pressed 
apart (the wood split), or the fiber ends crushed, or the mate- 
rial on one side of the wedge must be bent, thus forming a 



BENCH TOOLS. 2$ 

shaving. It is evident that a unit of force tending to drive the 
edge forward will, under like conditions of material, always 
result in the same amount of incision. But much less force is 
required to carry the tool forward when the cutting edge is just 
entering the material, than when it has advanced to a consider- 
able depth, and, hence, it is fair to assume that this difference is 
due solely to the resistance that the material offers in opening 
to make way for the tool, this resistance increasing as the tool 
goes deeper. The resistance offered to a tool by a bending 
shaving, therefore, may be many times greater than that offered 
to the cutting edge by the wood fibers. 

An obtuse-angled wedge will cut as easily as a more acute- 
angled one, but the more obtuse the angle is, the more abrupt 
must be the turning of the shaving ; and since the latter factor 
is the more important, as regards the absorption of force, it 
follows that the more acute the cutting edge is, the more easily 
it will accomplish its work. 

46. Angle of Cutting Wedge in Chisel and Gouge. — -The 
acuteness of the angle cannot be defined in degrees since, 
being limited only by the strength of the steel, it must vary as 
the duty required of it varies. For example, a more acute 
angle may be used in soft than in hard wood ; again, a chisel 
handled as shown by Figs. 147 and 148, is not so severely 
strained as when used in the manner illustrated by Fig. 149. 
If the maximum degree of delicacy were insisted on under 
every condition of use, the cutting edge would need to vary 
with every turn of the chisel, and almost with every shaving it 
cuts. This would be impracticable, and wood workers reduce 
all these requirements to a single principle which may be 
expressed as follows : let the cutting edge be as acute as the 
metal will allow without breaking, when fairly used. A little 
experience with a given tool is the readiest means of finding 
the angle suited to a given class of work. Carriage makers, 



24 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

who work almost wholly in hard woods, are in the habit of 
using what pattern makers, who work principally in soft woods, 
would style blunt chisels. 

47. Grinding. — A new chisel, or one that has become con- 
siderably dull, must be ground. With the handle of the chisel 




in the right hand, and the fingers of the left hand resting on 
the blade near its cutting edge, apply the chisel to the stone. 
Fig. 50, as shown by the dotted outline ^, and then raise the 
right hand until the proper angle is reached, a position indi- 
cated by the full outline b. See that there is a good supply of 
water, and, as the grinding progresses, move the tool gradually 
from one side of the stone to the other. 

Assuming that the stone is in fairly good order, the tool 
should be applied relative to its motion, in the manner shown 
by a and h^ Fig. 50, the motion being in the direction of the 
arrow d. If the stone is not round or does not run true, there 
is danger that the cutting edge may dig into it, to the injury of 
both stone and tool. Under such conditions, it will be best for 
the operator to move round to the other side, and hold the tool 
in the position indicated by c. The first position is preferable, 
chiefly because of two reasons : first, the tool may be held 
more steadily ; and, secondly, there is less tendency toward the 
production of a '' wire edge." As the extreme edge becomes 
thin by grinding, it springs slightly away from the stone, and 
allows the chisel at points still farther from the edge to become 
thin, thus resulting in an extremely delicate edge which must be 
removed before the tool can be made sharp. In the effort to 
remove this wire edge, it frequently breaks off farther back than 



BENCH TOOLS. 



25 



'Fig, ^1 



is desired, and the process of whetting is prolonged. With the 
chisel held at c (instead of ^, the proper position) the direc- 
tion of the motion relative to the tool aggravates this tendency 
of the light edge to spring away from the stone. 

The grinding process is complete when the ground surface 
reaches the cutting edge — a condition readily determined by 
holding the tool to the light. If it is still dull, there will be a 
bright line along the cutting edge. When this line has disap- 
peared, the tool is as sharp as it can be made by grinding, 
which, if persisted in, will only result in a wire edge. The 
action of the grindstone, however, is too severe to produce a 
good cutting edge, and the chisel, after being ground, must be 
whetted (107 -no). 

48. To whet the 
chisel, apply it to 
the oilstone A, Fig. 
51, in the position 
shown by the dot- 
ted outline ^, and 
as it is moved back 

and forth along the length of the stone, as indicated by the 
arrows, gradually bring it to the position shown by ^'. That is, 
the angle between it and the stone is to be increased until the 
cutting edge c comes in contact with the stone ; this position 
can be recognized by the sensation imparted to the hand, and 
the behavior of the oil with which the stone is lubricated. At 
first thought, it may seem that 
the bevel ad, Fig. 52, which was 
produced by the grinding, should 
be maintained in whetting; but 
to do this would require so much 
time that one corresponding very 
nearly to a3, as cd, is taken. 

Great care is necessary on the part of one unskilled to avoid giv- 







Fig. G3 





26 BENCH WORK IN WOODe 

ing the tool a rocking motion on the oilstone ; if this is indulged 
-p.^ ^3 in, the edge will appear rounded, as 

^/ ^ shown by Fig. 53, and will be no 

sharper than if it had the form 
indicated by the dotted outline 
a^c. When sufficiently whetted, the cutting edge, if held to 
the light, will show a dull, grayish hue. If a bright line appears 
along the edge, it is not yet sharp. The whetting turns a light 
wire edge over on the flat face, an exaggeration of which is 

shown by a, Fig. 54. This can- 
not always be seen, but may be 
detected by the finger ; it is re- 
<^^ ^^^ moved by a single stroke of the 

blade with the flat face on the 
stone, as shown by a', Fig. 51. It is necessary, however, that 
every precaution be taken to prevent the production of a bevel 
indicated by the dotted line c. Fig. 54, and opposite that 
already existing. To guard against this, the chisel should be 
applied to the stone in the manner illustrated by the outline a, 
Fig. 51 (111-115). 

A tool must be whetted often enough to keep the edge in 
good condition ; it is dull whenever it fails to cut well. When, 
by frequent w^hetting, the whetted surface becomes so broad as 
to require considerable time in the production of the edge, it 
should be reground, and the process just described repeated. 

This method of sharpening the chisel will, in general, apply 
to the gouge, drawing-knife, and all similar tools. 

Saws. 

49. The efficiency of any saw is measured by the amount of 
force it absorbs in making a given cut or " kerf." For example, 
if one saw severs a 4'' X 4" timber with half the force required 
by another, it is evident that the second saw is only one-half 
as efficient as the first. Almost every element that enters into 



BENCH TOOLS. 2^ 

saw construction has its effect on the efficiency of the tool. 
Chief among them is the thickness of the blade, which, of 
course, determines the width of the kerf; for a wide kerf will 
require the removal of more material than a narrow one, and 
the force absorbed in each case must bear some relation to the 
amount of material removed. In recognition of this fact, the 
people of some eastern countries use saws designed to cut 
when drawn towards the operator, a method of handling that 
allows great thinness of blade — too great to stand the thrust by 
which our saws are driven into the work. But the result is 
that the Chinese saw, for example, Fig. ss 

which is represented by Fig. 55, 
accomplishes its work with re- 
markable ease. The shape of such a saw, however, and the 
awkward manner of applying force to it, probably more than 
neutralize the advantage gained from its delicacy, although in 
the abstract, the thinner the blade the better the saw. 

50. The form of ouLOwn saws is not the result of chance, 
but, on the contrary, has been developed after a careful study 
of the conditions under which they are required to work. 
Other things being equal, pushing a saw gives better results 
than pulling it. Under a thrusting force, it is found necessary 
to make the blade sufficiently thick and strong to resist bend- 
ing tendencies, but with no surplus material to add unneces- 
sary weight. In view of these facts the outline of the blade is 
tapered, as shown by Fig. 56. The blade is thicker also at the 
handle than at the point. To assist in giving it clearance in 

ITig. sv 





the kerf, it is tapered from the teeth to the back. This differ- 
ence in thickness is accompHshed in the process of manufacture, 



28 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

by grinding the rough blade after it has been hardened. Im- 
perfections left by the hardening or the grinding process, may 
be detected in the finished saw by bending the blade, as shown 
by Fig. 57. If it is uniformly ground and hardened, the curve 
will be regular as shown ; if it is thick in spots, or if it varies in 
hardness, the curve will be uneven, as indicated by the dotted 
line. 

51. Set. — The thinning of the blade back from the cutting 
edge will not, in most cases, prevent the sides of the kerf from 
pressing against the saw. To meet this difficulty, the saw teeth 
are bent — one to one side, the next to the other side — so as to 
make the width of the kerf greater than the thickness of the 
blade. The amount of such bending, or " set," as well as its 
uniformity, can readily be seen by holding the saw to the light 
with the back of the blade next the eye ; it will then appear as 

:Fig.s8 shown by Fig. 58. 

In very hard material the sides of 
the kerf are left smooth and even, and 
scarcely any set is required ; sometimes even none. But if the 
material is soft and spongy, the fibers spring away from the 
advancing teeth, and then come back again on the blade after 
the teeth have passed ; hence, a large amount of set is required. 
For most purposes at the bench, however, the set is sufficient 
when it can be easily and clearly seen. 

52. Size of Saw Teeth. — For proper action, each tooth 
should begin to cut when it enters the work, and continue cut- 
ting until it leaves the kerf, and, since the space in front of 
each tooth must contain the material removed by it, the capa- 
city of the space must be increased in those saws which are 
required to work through a considerable depth of material. A 
two-handed cross-cutting-saw for logs, therefore, has the teeth 
widely placed, thus making the intervals large. 

In panel-saws, such as are used at the bench, except in spe- 



BENCH TOOLS. 



29 



cial cases, the space is of the same size and form with the 
tooth. When the spaces are large, the teeth must be large, 
and, since the size of the spaces has a direct relation to the 
amount of material removed, it may be said that the size of 
the teeth depends on the size of the material in which the saw 
is to work. 

The size of saw teeth is expressed by the number contained 
in an inch. Thus " 6 teeth " means that the distance from 
one point to another is \ ". 

53. Ripping-Saws and Cross-cutting-Saws.— A ripping-saw 

is one that is used in cutting with the grain of the wood, as on the 

line ab, Fig. 59. A cross-cutting-saw p..^^ ^^ 

is intended for use at right angles to l^ _---^.^^^ _.^^ 

the grain, as indicated by cd, Fig. ^^T^^ 

59. An obUque kerf, such as is ^| 

shown by ef, Fig. 59, may in soft ^ / 

wood be cut with the ripping-saw, which will work faster than 

the cross-cutting, but the work will be more smoothly done 

by the latter. A large knot in the course of the ripping-saw 

may make it best to substitute the cross- cutting-saw until the 

knot is passed through, after which the ripping-saw may be 

used again. A cross-cutting-saw for the bench should have 




Sec. A B. 



ELEVATION. 



a 22'' or 24'' blade with yi or 8 teeth to the inch; a rip- 
ping-saw should have a 24 " or 26 " blade, with 6 or 6^ teeth. 



30 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 

54. The Teeth of Ripping-Saws. — Fig. 60 shows a plan, 
elevation, and section of three teeth as they are usually made 
for a ripping-saw. The following paragraphs present a consid- 
eration of the action of an individual tooth. 

All wood is fibrous, and any tool which is to produce a cut 
along the length of the fibers, as the saw kerf ab^ Fig. 59, must, 
at each period of action, take something from the ends of such 



61 ITig. 63 





fibers as may lie in the path of the proposed opening. In fulfil- 
ling this condition, the action of a ripping-saw's tooth is not 
unlike the action of a chisel when used as shown by Fig. 149. 
Each tooth in its turn removes its share from the fiber ends over 
which it passes, just as the chisel at every change of position 
takes its slice and lengthens the cut. The cutting edge of 
a saw tooth, however, is bounded by a more obtuse angle than 
that of a chisel, and as a cutting tool is inferior. Thus, if one 
of the three teeth shown by Fig. 60 is applied to a saw kerf in 
the position it would occupy as part of a complete saw, it will 
appear as represented by Fig. 61, its motion being in the direc- 
tion of the arrow. It is defective as a cut- 

ITig. 63 

ting tool,, because of the position of the 
line ab, the advancing face of the tooth. 
This defect is more clearly illustrated by 
Fig. 62 ; this shows how a chisel would look if its edge were 
made to cut in the same manner as that of a saw tooth. 
But the fact is that a great discrepancy exists between the 
form of the saw tooth and that of the chisel, for it has 
been demonstrated that a chisel, to give good results, must 



BENCH TOOLS. 3 1 

be at least as acute as is indicated by the dotted line a ; 
and it would seem that the former might be improved by 
bringing it more nearly to the outline of the latter. Sup- 
pose this be attempted, and that the face of the tooth in- 
dicated by the line cd, Fig. 60, be changed to c3'. Such 
a change must result either in removing material from the 
tooth, and thereby weakening it, or in changing the line r^ 
to a position cd'. In other words, if the tooth is not weak- 
ened, the space between it and the next will be reduced. 
Again, if to make the advancing face still more acute, the line 
r/^" is accepted, and the tooth is not made smaller (that is, 
weakened), there will be no space between it and the next 
tooth. Having no spaces, there can be no teeth, and conse- 
quently the attempted change is impossible. It will thus be 
seen that the angle of the advancing face of the ripping-saw 
tooth cannot, unless it is weakened, be much more acute than 
is shown by Fig. 60 and Fig. 61. 

The form of the tooth may be wholly changed, however, to 
the outline shown by Fig. 6;^, and some advantage may thus 
be gained in respect of the cutting angle ; but such a tooth, 
while suitable for machine-saws of considerable size, is too 
complicated for small saws. 

Nothing remains, then, as a possible means of improving the 
cutting edge of the saw tooth, except a modification of the 
angle dcd, Fig. 60. If it could be shown that there is an excess 
of strength in the tooth, above what is needed to perform its 
work, the angle might be changed to 3'cd, or even fo ^'U-d, and 
the value of the tooth as a cutting tool be increased. More- 
over, it does not at first seem unreasonable to attempt such a 
change, for it is evident that the cutting wedge of the chisel 
(which we have regarded as the typical cutting tool), while 
much more acute than the angle ^cd, is yet strong enough to 
be entirely satisfactory. 

A more careful comparison of the saw and chisel, however, 



32 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



discloses the following facts : first, a saw tooth must be softer 
than a chisel in order that it may be set and filed, and being 
softer, is therefore weaker in its substance j secondly, the width 
of the saw tooth is less than half the width of the narrowest 
chisel made, and, in this respect also, it is at a disadvan- 
tage ; and, thirdly, in using a chisel the operator's atten- 
tion is given entirely to its one cutting edge, and if at any 
time it is likely to receive too much strain, it is at once re- 
lieved ; while each saw tooth, on the contrary, forms but a 
small part of a tool that receives little attention and much vig- 
orous handling while it is being driven through straight grain, 
crooked grain, or hard knots, as the case may be. From a 
consideration of these points, it seems clear that the cutting- 
angle of a saw tooth must be less acute than that of a chisel. 
But the degree of acuteness can be determined only by use. 
Fig. 60 shows the form which years of experience have proved 
the most practicable for general work, and while some bench- 
workers do file their saws " under," producing a tooth similar 
to dch\ as many more go to the other extreme and use a tooth 
similar to dcf. The typical form given is easily kept in order, 
and, when in that condition, will cut freely and well. 



Fic^. 64r 



55. The Teeth of Cross-cutting-Saws. — If a ripping-saw 
is used directly across the grain, the fibers of the material will 

be torn from each 
other without being 
properly cut ; hence 
the necessity for a 
saw that will " cross- 
cut." Fig. 64 shows 
by its three views a 
representative form 
of tooth for this saw. 
It will be seen by the figure that the tooth terminates in a trian- 




BENCH TOOLS. 



33 



Fig. 65 




gular point ; and also, that while the point a is formed on one 
side of the blade, the next, a\ is formed on the opposite side ; 
thus throughout its length, the points of any two adjacent teeth 
being on opposite sides of the blade. This arrangement makes 
the end view of the blade show two parallel Hnes of points, and 
between them a triangular depression, which, when exaggerated 
by the ^^set," will appear as shown by 
section AB, Fig. 64. 

In action, the points a and a\ Fig. 65, 
score the work, and the friction between 
the teeth and the cut fibers breaks up 
the latter, and they are carried off by 
the saw. 

Assuming that it is a matter of convenience to have these 
teeth, as well as those of the ripping-saw, equal to the space 
between any two of them, there are three questions which may 
be considered concerning their proportions. First, what shall 
be the inclination of the advancing edge or " face " of the 
tooth, as represented by the line a^ compared with the line ^^, 
Fig. 64? Holly, in his little work on "The Art of Saw-Filing,'* 
shows the similarity of action between the advancing edge a^ 
and the edge of a pocket knife when made to cut across the 
grain, and asserts that a knife with its cutting edge perpen- 
dicular to the surface upon which it acts (a position equiva- 
lent to M) will make a rougher cut, and require more force 
to carry it forward at a given depth, than when it is inclined 
in a position similar to that of the hne ad. The result obtained 
from such an experiment cannot be regarded as conclusive, 
because of the great difference in the character of the cutting 
edges compared. But, if it is found that the knife with its 
keen cutting edge behaves more satisfactorily at an incHnation 
to the work, it seems reasonable to conclude that the rougher 
edge of a saw tooth will give the best results when much more 
inclined. A consideration of these points justifies the beHef 



34 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



that an angle of 60 degrees with the work, that is, with a line 
passing through the points a ' and a, is none too great, and all 
practice goes to show that teeth so formed not only do very 
smooth work, but cut with ease and rapidity. 

Secondly, what shall be the angle of the advancing face of 
the tooth, as represented by lines e'e and e/, Sec. £F, Fig. 64 ? 
Since this angle forms the cutting wedge of the tooth, it should 
be as acute as is consistent with strength. Greater strength 
being required for action in hard wood than in soft, it follows 
that this angle should be varied with the material in which it is 
used. For general work it may correspond to the angle e'e/. 

Thirdly, what shall be the acuteness of the point as indicated 
by the angle I'q/] Sec. AB, Fig. 64 ? This, also, is determined 
by the character of the material to be cut. It should be more 
obtuse, as lak, for hard wood than for soft wood, not only be- 
cause additional strength is required, but also because, if too 
acute, the scoring will be done so easily that the fibers be- 
tween the scores will not break out, and the saw, being unable 
to pass down into new work, will slide along on the old. 



P^ig. 66 




Fi 


s- 


67 






i 






A 




~i 














i 



Under such conditions, the bottom of the kerf will appear 
as shown by Fig. 66. A more obtuse angle will not pene- 
trate the work so readily, but it will break up the fibers better, 
and thus leave the kerf in proper form as shown by Fig. 67. 
The softer woods break out more easily than the harder ones, 
and, consequently, a keener point may be used in working in 
them. 



56. The Back-Saw is used only where accurate cuts are 
required. Its teeth, in form, are similar to those of the cross- 



BENCH TOOLS. 



35 




cutting-saw, except that the Hne of the advancing face is 

brought forward as indicated by bkly Fig. 64, to increase their 

efficiency when used with the 

grain. They are, however, 

much finer, there being usually 

as many as sixteen to the 

inch. This saw cuts slowly as 

compared with a panel-saw, but may be used in very delicate 

work. It is used to cut in any direction relative to the grain 

of the wood. The bur left by the file after sharpening, forms 

a sufficient set. 

The blade A^ Fig. (^^^ is in itself too thin to withstand the 
thrust necessary to drive it into the work, and is strengthened 
by an iron ^^back," B, This, being thicker than the blade, will 
not allow the saw to penetrate beyond a depth represented by 
the distance C, For this reason the blade is uniform in width 
instead of tapering. 



Sec. AB. 

{Enlarged) 



57. The Compass-Saw, shown by Fig. 69, is intended for 
sawing in curved lines. Its blade is extremely thick, and the 

teeth are sriven an enor- 
mous amount of set. See 
sections AB and CD, 
Fig. 69. If the curve in 
which it is to be used is 
very small, only a short 
portion of the blade ^s 
length next the point can 
be used. With a curve 
of longer radius, a greater length of blade may be brought into 
action. 

Fig. T'O 

Its teeth are of the form shown by Fig. ^ - 

70, having the square face of the ripping- 
saw, and the point of the cross- cutting- saw. 




Sec. CD. 

(^Enlarged) 



36 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



They are thus adapted for use in any direction relative to the 
grain of the wood. 



Appliances for Saw Filing and Setting. 

58. A " Triangular Saw File " ^ is of the form shown by 
Fig. 71. A '^sHm" saw file is represented by Fig. 72; it is 



B^ig. Tt 



F-ig. "TS 



Fig. TS 




It^ig. ^4 




REGULAR. 

two inches longer than a "regular" saw file of the 
same cross-section. A "double ender" is shown by 
Fig. 73? and a cross-section of all saw files, on an en- 
larged scale, by Fig. 74. 

59. Saw Sets. — Fig. 75 shows a simple form of set. 
The tooth to be bent is placed on the surface A, with 



Frequently called " three-square saw file." 



BENCH TOOLS. 



37 



iT-iff. rs 



the adjacent teeth in contact with B, B. Thus placed, the 

blade is allowed to rest 

on the screw C A blow 

from a hammer on D 

bends or ^^sets" the tooth, 

and a spring returns D to 

the position shown. ^ The 

amount of set is regulated 

by the position of the 

screw C, and is greater, 

the lower C is fixed. If C 

is raised to coincide with 

the dotted line AE, the 

tooth will not be set. B, B can be adjusted to the depth on 

the tooth to which the set is to take effect. 

60. Swedge Sets for Ripping-Saws, illustrated by Fig. 76, 
are in general use on large 
saws and, occasionally, on 
small ones ; generally speak- 
ing, they do not concern the 
bench-worker. The set is 

Fig. '77' 




ITig. 7'6 





1 Z) is not well shown in the engraving. Since it must act on only one 
tooth at a time, the end X is wedge-shaped. 



38 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



driven against the edge of the tooth, as shown by Fig. 77 ; by 
using one opening the center of the tooth is forced back, as 
at H\ and by use of the other opening the points are spread, 
completing the work, as at G, A tooth thus set is more 
perfect in its action than when bent, since it cuts the full width 
of the kerf. 

61. Saw Clamps are convenient for holding the saw during 

Fig. T'S 




SIDE. 



PLAN. 

the filing process. Carpenters frequently make for themselves 
clamps similar to that represented by Fig. 78. It consists of 
two pieces of hard wood joined face to face by two screws 
(one near each end), by means of which the clamp may be 
iTig. ro fastened rigidly to the blade of 

the saw. It may then be fast- 
ened in the vise or held on 
the knee while the saw is being 
filed. A much better device is 
the saw clamp shown by Fig. 
79, which, while fastened to the 
bench, so holds the saw that it 
may be turned in almost any 
direction, thus enabhng the 
workman to obtain a favorable 
light. 




BENCH TOOLS. 39 

To File and Set a Saw. 

62. Top-Jointing. — With the saw clamped teeth up, joint 
it by running a file along the tops of the teeth, as shown by 
Fig. 80. This is done to bring all the teeth to the same height, 
and also to maintain the form of the saw, which, along the 
line of the teeth, should be slightly con- irig.. so 

vex. The lointinsr should leave a small a^^^s^^^^^S,^. 

facet on each tooth, which will be rec- ^"^ ^ '^^ ^^^^ 
tangular in a ripping-saw and triangular _=;,.^^Q 

in a cross-cutting-saw. "!;^^ ^ ^^^^^« gBg 

PLAN. 

63. Setting. — -Beginning at one end, bend outward every 
second tooth, then turn the saw and bend the remaining teeth 
toward the opposite side of the blade. In the case of the rip- 
ping-saw, if the swedge set is used, the setting should be done 
before jointing. 

54. Filing. — It is of great importance that the saw be 
properly supported during the operation of filing. An unusual 
amount of noise shows that the blade is not properly clamped, 
or that the file is not being properly handled; it is also a sure 
indication that the filing is not going on as fast as it might, and 
that the file is being injured. If the file is new, let the pres- 
sure be very light. Carry it across the work with a slow, steady 
movement. Never take short, quick strokes, as but little will 
be done in this way, and the file will suffer beyond repair. In 
filing a ripping-saw, the movement should be 
exactly perpendicular to the plane of the blade, 
as indicated by plan. Fig. 81, and the outline 
of the teeth maintained by an even contact, as 
shown by the elevation in the same figure. But 
if the form of the teeth is to be changed, the file 
must be turned either in the direction indicated ^^^' 

by the arrow, Fig. 81, or in the opposite direction. 

In filing a cross-cutting-saw, the angle between the file and 




^ 



40 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 




Fig. 8S 



SIDE ELEVATION. 




END ELEVATION. 



the blade must be varied in accordance with the following con- 
siderations : first, the outline of the teeth may be preserved 
or changed in the manner just described in connection with 
the ripping-saw; secondly, the angle of the advancing face 
{e^ef^ Fig. 64) is determined by the inclination of the file 

to the blade, as shown 
by the plan. Fig. 82 ; 
thirdly, the angle of the 
point {iaj\ Fig. 64) is 
determined by the incli- 
nation of the file to the 
blade, as shown by the 
end elevation. Fig. 82. 
The form of the teeth 
having been decided 
upon from principles already given, it may be produced without 
difficulty by attending to the foregoing directions. 

In filing any of the teeth herein discussed, the file should 
always be in gentle contact with the face of one tooth, as b, 
Fig. 81, while most of the cutting is done on the back of the 
next one a, which, as usually considered, is the tooth that is 
being filed. This tooth should be one which, by its set, bends 
away from the operator. Beginning at one end of the blade, 
he files every second tooth until the opposite end is reached, 
when the blade is turned, and the remaining teeth filed from 
the other side. 

No saw, even though the teeth are not bent, should be filed 
wholly from one side, for the file turns a slight edge, or bur ; 
and, since this increases the set, it should be evenly distributed 
on both sides of the blade. 

The filing on each tooth should continue until the facet 
produced by the jointing disappears. After this is accom- 
plished, a single stroke will make the tooth receiving it lower 
than the others. To avoid this, it will be found best to leave 



BENCH TOOLS, 



41 



the teeth filed fi*om the first side a Httle dull, for, in filing the 
intermediate teeth after the saw has been turned, the advancing 
faces of the others (the teeth first filed) are somewhat reduced. 
After every tooth has been passed over, if dull points are still 
to be seen, they may be sharpened from either side as their 
proportions may dictate. Regularity in the size and form of 
the teeth, and a similarity of appearance when viewed from 
either side of the blade, are the tests of good workmanship. 



65. Side- Jointing. — Usually, when the fil- 
ing is finished, the saw is ready for use, but it 
will cut more smoothly if it is jointed on the 
sides of the teeth. In Fig. S^, B is side- 
jointed, the surfaces produced agreeing with 
the dotted lines ; A is not side-jointed. 

Side-jointing may be accomplished by use 
of either a file or an oilstone. It is always 
necessary after a swedge set has been used. 



ITig. 83 





Planes and Plane-like Tools. 

66. The plan and the section. Fig. 84, show a smooth-plane. 
The stock ^, when of wood, is Tisually of beech. In it is an 
opening, or " throat," b, which receives the B^ig. 84 

iron c\ this is held in place by the wedge d. 
The lower part of the opening is called the 
mouth ; and, as shown by the figure, the shav- 
ing passes into the mouth, and out through 
the throat. The bottom of the plane, which rests upon the 
work, is called its '^face." The iron usually stands at an angle 
of 45 degrees with the face. 

The bench-worker's set of planes comprises a smooth-plane, 
Fig. 85, which is about 8" in length; a jack-plane. Fig. ?>()y 
which is from 12" to 14" in length; a fore-plane. Fig. 87, from 
22'' to 26'' in length ; and a jointer, from 28'' to 30'' in length. 



m A) 

Section A B, 



42 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Similar purposes are served by the jointer and the fore-plane, 
the former being unnecessary except for large surfaces that are 
to be planed with accuracy. 



Fig. 85 




Fig. 86 



Fig. &r 






Fig. 89 




67. The Length of the Plane-Stock determines, in a measure, 
the straightness of the work. Thus, a smooth-plane, if used on 

Fig. 88 an uneven surface, will, 

as shown by Fig. 88^ rise 
over elevated portions and 
settle in hollows, taking its shaving without interruption, and 
producing no great change in the outline of the surface, while 

a fore -plane or jointer 
similarly applied will, as 
shown by Fig. 89, cut 
only on the higher parts, 
and by so doing, produce an even surface. 

The stock of a smooth-plane is made short so that, by its use, 
a surface may be smoothed without incurring the necessity of 
straightening it. 

The fore-plane will smooth as well as the smooth-plane, but 
not until it has first straightened the surface. 

The jack-plane is used for cutting heavy shavings, and its 
length bears no relation to the character of the work expected 
of it, but is such as will enable the workman to grasp it easily 
and firmly. 

68. A *^ Plane-Iron " ^ for a wooden plane is of iron overlaid 
in part with steel. Its cutting edge is maintained in precisely 
the same way as that of a chisel. See 47 and 48. The angle 



1 Known also as " plane-bit." 



BENCH TOOLS. 



43 



t 



ITig. 90 





of the cutting wedge, however, for all except the jack-plane 
may be more acute. 

69. The outline of the cutting edge, unlike that of the chisel, 
is never straight, being for the jack-plane slightly curved, as 

shown by Fig. 90, and for the smooth-plane ^ig. 91 
and fore-plane (also for the jointer) of the 
form shown by Fig. 91. Being used for 
heavy work and frequently removing shav- 
ings as thick as one-sixteenth of an inch, 
the jack-plane, if its cutting edge were 
straight, would produce in the work at 
each stroke a rectangular channel from 
which the shaving must be torn as well as cut. .Such 
a shaving would be likely to stick fast in the throat 
of the plane, or, under most favorable conditions, 
would require a large amount of force for its removal. 
A shaving removed by the iron represented by Fig. 
90, however, is not rectangular in section, but thick 
in the middle, tapering gradually to nothing at the edges. 
This form of iron is best adapted to the removal of a large 
amount of material at a stroke, but it leaves a succession of 
grooves upon the work which must be smoothed off by another 
plane. 

70. The form of the cutting iron in the smooth-plane and 
the fore-plane, as shown by Fig. 91, is straight throughout the 
greater portion of its width, and slightly rounded at the comers. 
The objections urged against the use of such an iron as this in 
the jack-plane, do not apply to its use in the smooth-plane or 
the fore-plane, because the jack-plane, to fulfil its office, must 
rem.ove a heavy shaving ; the smooth-plane or the fore-plane, 
unless the surface upon which it acts is very much narrower 
than the width of the plane, is required to remove a shaving 
whose thickness rarely exceeds that of a sheet of paper. The 



44 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



groove caused by the removal of so delicate a shaving, is suf- 
ficiently blended with the general surface of the work, by the 
rounded corners of the iron. 

71. If a rough board is to be made smooth, or if a consider- 
able amount of material is to be removed to bring a piece of 
wood to size, most of the surplus stock should be taken off by 
the jack-plane, after which the smooth-plane should be used to 
give the surface desired. If the finished surface is to be straight 
as well as smooth, the fore-plane should follow the jack-plane. 
It is never necessary to follow the jack-plane with both the 
smooth-plane and the fore-plane. 

72. The Cap. — A supplementary iron, or "cap," shown by 

^, Fig. 92, is fastened to 
most plane-irons. Its use 
is well illustrated by the 
two sections. Figs. 93 and 
94. The single iron will 
do smooth work as long as 

the grain of the wood is favorable, as shown at a. When the 



Fig. 9S 





grain becomes obstinate, as at b, the shaving, by running up on 
the iron, acquires a leverage which causes it to split in advance 



BENCH TOOLS. 



45 



of the cutting edge, below the reach of which it breaks, leaving 
a surface extremely rough. The office of the cap is to break 
the shaving as soon as possible after it is cut, Fig. 94, and thus 
prevent a gain of leverage on its part. 




The distance at which the cap is set from the edge of the 
iron, must vary with the thickness of the shaving taken. For a 
smooth-plane or a fore-plane, a thirty-second of an inch is fre- 
quently not too close, while for a jack-plane an eighth of an 
inch may not be too great a distance. 

A cutting iron and cap together are frequently spoken of as 
a ^^ double iron." 



73. Narrowness of Mouth in a plane is the chief element 
in the production of smooth surfaces. If, in Fig. 94, that por- 
tion of the stock in advance of the iron, marked <:, were want- 
ing, the shaving, having nothing to hold it down, would rarely 
be broken, notwithstanding the presence of the cap. A wide 
mouth would produce a similar effect. This being true, what- 
ever other conditions there may be, the wider the mouth is, 
the less frequently the shaving will be broken and, in obstinate 
grain, the rougher will be the work. 



46 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

74. To Adjust the Iron. — To set the hon deeper, so that 
a heavier cut may be taken, strike it a Hght blow, as indicated 
by the arrow e, Fig. 84. If a Hghter cut is required, strike the 
stock as indicated by the arrow /. When the iron is in the 
right position, a hght blow will tighten the wedge. To remove 
the iron and wedge, turn the plane over so that the face is 
uppermost, grasp the iron and wedge with the right hand, hold 
the back end of the plane between the thumb and finger of the 
left, and strike the stock at / upon the surface of the bench. 
A single blow is usually sufficient. 

Never strike the plane while it is resting on the bench or any 
support that is firm. It should be held in the hand clear of 
everything ; but, if this is not convenient, one end may rest on 
the knee. 

To set the iron in a wooden plane, hold the stock in such a 
way that, while the face rests on the hand, the end of the fore- 
finger may extend across the mouth. Put the iron in place, 
allowing its cuiting edge to rest on the forefinger, which should 
keep it from projecting. Insert the wedge, push it down with 
the thumb, and by a light blow with the hammer drive the iron 
down until its projection beyond the level of the face is equal 
to the thickness of the shaving that the plane is to take ; a sin- 
gle tap on the wedge will then tighten the iron in place. • The 
distance that the iron projects, can easily be determined by 
sighting along the face of the plane. 

The wedge must not be driven too hard, for a plane may be 
so distorted by a hard- driven wedge as to make it incapable of 
doing good work. The iron will be held in place even when 
the wedge is so loose that it may be drawn out with the fingers. 

Notwithstanding the fact that wooden plane-stocks are made 
from material little affected by atmospheric influences, they 
will warp enough, especially when nearly new, to bring the face 
considerably out of a true plane. When, from this cause, the 
plane fails to do good work, it must be jointed. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



47 



F 


is- 


9 


5 


a, 1 


--,' 1 






WINDING 


"■■ '•■.,/ 


n 


STICK 




y 


1. 






v7 










''- ' 








1 , 




WINDING 


••i;:''v5 




STICK 








",7 ^ - - ~ 


b 






75. To Joint a Plane, fasten it in a vise with the face up 
and the front end to the right. The iron should be in place, the 
cutting edge well back within the mouth, 
and the wedge driven as for work. It is now 
necessary to determine whether the plane 
to be jointed is twisted or not (97). Ap- 
ply two parallel strips, or "winding-sticks," 
(the longer legs of two framing-squares will 
answer), one across each end of the plane, 
as indicated by Fig. 95. After making 
sure that they are parallel, sight across one 
to the other. As the eye is lowered, if the 
one farther away is lost sight of all at the 
same time, the plane is "out of wind," and 
needs only to be straightened ; but, if one 
end of the straight-edge that is farther 
from the eye, disappears before its other 
end, as in the elevation. Fig. 95, it is evident that the two 
corners a and b, diagonally opposite, are high, and more must 
be taken from them than from the other corners. With this 
understanding, the fore-plane or the jointer may be appKed 
until the plane is jointed, that is, until the face is a true 
plane. 

During the planing process, frequent tests must be made 
with the parallel strips, to make sure that the high corners 
are being brought down properly. In the early stages of 
the work, the try- square may be used occasionally to keep 
the face as nearly as may be at right angles to one side, 
and the straightness of the face may be determined either 
by sighting or by use of the framing-square as a straight- 
edge. A true face having been produced, the sharp angles 
between it and the two sides should be changed to slight 
chamfers, inasmuch as the sharp edges, if not removed, are 
likely to splinter off. 




48 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

A few drops of lubricating oil rubbed on the newly- 
planed surface, will prevent wear and keep shavings from 
sticking. 

Wooden bench planes have had their day, and are going out 
of use. 

76. Iron Bench Planes possess the general characteristics of 
the wooden ones, but are superior 
to them in several respects. They 
are always perfectly true and, there- 
fore, never require jointing. The 
cutting " iron,'* which, in this case, 
is not of iron at all, but of steel, is much thinner than that in 
wooden planes, and is, therefore, more readily sharpened. Its 
greater thinness is made possible by the thorough manner in 
which it is supported. It may be set and accurately adjusted 
in a very short time. 

The arrangement of parts in Bailey's iron planes may be 
understood by reference to Fig. 96, which represents a jack- 
plane. The " wedge " A is of iron of the form shown ; it 
admits the screw E through an enlargement of a short slot, and 
drops down, allowing E to take effect. By a movement of the 
clamp B, the wedge A is made to press upon the iron near its 
cutting edge, while the clamp presses against it at F, The 
screw E is never moved. The cutting iron is adjusted for 
depth of cut by the action of the thumb-screw D, which, when 
turned in one direction, moves the iron downward, and when 
its motion is reversed moves it upward. 

Thus a single movement of B releases the wedge and iron, 
and a reverse movement secures them again, while D furnishes 
a ready and positive means for adjusting the cutting edge with 
a degree of delicacy which it is impossible to attain in wooden 
planes. These planes, all having the same adjustments, are 
made in every size. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



49 





77. Planes of Wood and Iron Combined 

may be had, made up of the Bailey move- 
ments mounted in a suitable frame, to which 
a wooden face is fastened. Fig. 97 shows 
a Stanley combination smooth-plane. 

78. A Circular-Plane has a thin steel face, straight when 
free, but capable of having its ends thrust 
down or drawn up, thus making the 
face concave or convex, and adapting it 
to work on an outside or an inside curve. 
Fig. 98 shows a Bailey's adjustable cir- 
cular-plane. 

79. Block-Planes are small, and are intended for use chiefly 
on end grain. They generally have a single inverted iron, 
which turns the shaving on the bevel Fig. 99 
instead of on the face of the iron. 
They have many different forms, from 
among which Fig. 99 has been selected 
as a type. In this plane the throat may be made narrow 
or wide as is desired ; the adjustment is controlled by the 
screw A, 

80. Spokeshaves have the action 
of planes, but are not usually classi- 
fied with them. A simple form is 
shown by Fig. 100. By the cross-sec- 
tion it will be seen that it has almost 
no guiding surface corresponding to 
the face of a plane. This feature 
adapts it to work of irregular outline. 





Section A B. 

(Enlarged) 



81. Rabbeting-Planes have narrow stocks. The cutting 
edge is set in the face of the plane obliquely, and the iron is 
wide enough to extend beyond the sides of the stock, as shown 



50 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig. loi 



by Fig. loi. Rabbeting-planes are designed for use in 
interior angles. The oblique position of the iron produces a 
shearing cut which promotes smooth- 
ness in action. 

The shaving of the rabbeting-plane 
instead of passing through the stock is 
turned in such a way as to be dis- 
charged from one side ; an arrange- 
ment common to matching-planes, beading-planes, molding- 
planes, and plows (82, 83, 84, and 85). 




82. Matching-Planes are used to form a tongue and a 
groove, as shown respectively by a and b, Fig. 102. 

Wooden matching-planes. Fig. 102, are 
sold in pairs, one plane being fitted with a 
single cutting edge, to form the groove, the 
other with a double cutting edge, to form the 
tongue. Both are guided by the " fence " 
Cy which moves in contact with the working 
face of the piece operated upon. The 
groove and the tongue should both be car- 
ried to as great a depth as the plane will 
cut. 

An iron matching-plane, designed to serve 
the purpose of the two wooden ones, is now in general use. 
Its fence is pivoted to the face in such a way that it can be 
turned end for end ; in one position two cutters are exposed 

and the plane is adjusted to form the tongue ; 

when its position is reversed, the fence covers one 

of the cutting edges, and puts the plane in shape 

for making the groove. 

The size of matching-planes is indicated by the 

thickness of the material they are intended to 

match. 




TTig, 

A 



103 

B 



rin 



w 



VJ 



BENCH TOOLS. 



SI 



83. Hollow and Round are terms applied to such planes 
as are shown by A and B^ Fig. 103. They are used, as their 
forms suggest, in producing hollows and in rounding projecting 
edges. Their size is indicated by a number, or by the width of 
the cutting edge. 



ri 



Fig. XOS 



n 



84. Beading-Planes are used in forming beads (220), and 
they may be single or double, that is, form one or two irig. 104 
beads at a time. For beading on the edge of work, 
they are provided with a fence, A, Fig. 104. For 
use away from the edge, they are made to form three 

or more beads at the same time, and have 
no guide, in w^hich case they are known as 
reeding- planes. Fig. 105. The first three 
beads are made with the plane guided by a straight- 
edge temporarily fastened to the surface of the work ; 
the remainder are formed by using those already 
made as a guide, the plane being moved into new 
work at the rate of only one bead at a time. Other 
beading-planes, more complicated than those described, are con- 
structed on much the same principle as a plow. The size of a 
beading-plane is indicated by the width of the bead it will form. 

85. Plows are used in making rectangular slots or " plows " 
of any width, depth, and distance from the working-edge of 
the material. The width of the cut is 
ordinarily determined by the width of 
the iron used. A set of irons is sup- 
plied with the tool, which is shown by 
Fig. 106. A plow wider than the 
widest iron can, of course, be made 
by going over the work a second time. 
The depth of the cut is regulated by 
a Httle shoe (not shown) , which is raised or lowered by the 
screw A, When this is adjusted, the tool can be used until 



Fig. 106 




52 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



XTig. 107 



the lower surface of the shoe comes in contact with the face 
of the work, after which the cutting ceases. Care should be 
taken that the full depth is reached at all points along the 
length of the work. The distance between the groove and the 
working-edge is regulated by the fence B, which is adjusted 
by nuts C acting on the screws D, When ready for use, the 
fence should be parallel to the narrow iron face-piece E. 

86. Combination Planes which may be used in place of the 
plow, beading-plane, rabbeting-plane, etc., are found on the 
market, and many of them are serviceable tools. 

87. Scrapers. — Hand-scrapers are made of saw-plate — ma- 
terial of about the thickness of a panel- 
saw blade, and having the same degree of 
hardness. They are usually rectangular, 
and about 4'' X 5", but may be of almost 
any size and shape. The cutting edge is 
most easily formed by the production of 
a surface at right angles to the sides, 
as indicated by ab, Fig. 107, thus giving 

two cutting angles, cef and dfe. When a more 
acute cutting edge is desired, the form shown by 
Fig. 108 may be adopted ; but, as a rule, there 
is httle gained by the keener cutting edge, and 
double the labor is required to keep it sharp. 
Scrapers are sharpened by filing or grinding. If 
smooth work is to be done, the roughness of the 
edge may be removed on an oilstone, but the 
rougher edge will cut faster and, generally, will 
be more satisfactory. 

Fig. 109 shows a scraper mounted some- 
what like a plane. The scraper blade A, by 
means of the two nuts B, B, may be changed 
from a position inclined to the face, as shown, 
to one perpendicular to the face. 




Trig. 108 



ITig. 100 




BENCH TOOLS. 



53 



Fig. no 



5S3oXCC:: 



Boring Tools. 

88. Augers. — Fig. no shows a double-twist spur auger, 
a form generally used by carpenters. 
They are made in sizes varying from 
-i-'^ to 4'^ (in diameter), but are not 
much used below i". The spur A, 
Fig. Ill, is in the form of a tapered 
screw, which, besides centering the auger in its motion, draws or 
^^ feeds " it into the work. The two nibs B, B score the work, 
and the lips C, C cut and remove the shavings, which are carried 

Fig. Ill 




to the surface by the screw-like action of the body of the tool. 

Fig. 112 shows part of a single-tvvist auger which, as will 

be seen, has but a single nib B^ and a single cutting lip C. 

The cuttings are thrown into the center of the hole, and de- 



Fig. 112 




livered easily by this auger, and, in this respect, it is superior 

to the double-twist, which crowds the cuttings to the outside 

of the hole, where they are likely to become jam_med between 

the tool and the work. This characteristic of the single-twist 

auger particularly adapts 

it to the boring of deep 

holes. " Ship augers " are 

of this kind, and have 

handles like the one shown by Fig. 113. This form of handle 




54 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

has the advantage of allowing the use of both hands, without the 
interruption experienced in using the one illustrated by Fig. no. 
Augers are seldom required by the bench-worker, but are 
presented here because of their relation to other boring tools. 

89. Auger-Bits. — The auger-bit most in use is shown by 
Fig. 114. It is sold in sets of thirteen bits each, varying in 

size by sixteenths, from V' 

Fig. 114 * 



by a small figure on the 
shank, which indicates its 
size in the scale of sixteenths. Thus the figure 9 is to be inter- 
preted as 3^''. 

90. Augers and auger-bits are sharpened by filing. The 
scoring nib B, Figs, in and 112, which is usually the first part 
to become dull, should be filed wholly from the inside. If 
filed on the outside, the diameter of the cut it makes will be 
smaller than that of the body of the bit. The cutting lip C 
should be sharpened from the lower side, the file being inclined 
to preserve the original angle. With the spur in good order, 
whenever the tool refuses to "feed," it is clear that the bit 
needs sharpening somewhere. 

91. Center-Bits are convenient for boring holes of large 
diameter in delicate material, such as would be likely to split 
under the action of an auger-bit. By reference to Fig. 115, it 

will be seen that the spur ^, 

Fig. 115 ^ ' 

^^ which centers the bit in the 




-^•^^^■^ ^W work, is triangular in section. 

This form allows the bit to feed 
rapidly, or very slowly, in accordance with the degree of pres- 
sure applied to it. The point, or "nib," B cuts the fibers about 
the proposed hole, and the cutting lip C removes the material. 
The center-bit does not w^ork well in end grain. When dull it 
may easily be sharpened by whetting. 



BENCH TOOLS. 



55 




92. Expansive Bits are so constructed as to be adjust- 
able for holes of any size, within certain hmits. There are 
several forms in use, one of which is shown by Fig. 116. 
This, without the -p^ig^ n^ 
movable cutter C, 
will bore a hole . 
f " in diameter, the 
screw A centering 
and feeding it into the work, B scoring, and a cutting lip in 
advance of B (not shown) removing the shavings. When C is 
inserted as shown in the figure, in addition to the action just 
described, there is a supplementary action on the part of C, its 
nib, ^', scoring, and its cutting edge removing the chips. The 
cutter C is held in place by the screw D. By loosening D, C 
may be moved from or towards the center of the bit, or taken 
out altogether, and replaced by a cutter of different length. By 
using a short cutter in the place of C, a hole of any diameter 
from f " to 2" may be bored, and with the cutter shown, any 
hole from 2" to 3" maybe bored. The range of the bit, there- 
fore, is from f " to 3". 

93. Small Bits. — Bits for boring holes less than i'' in diam- 
eter are of many forms, but by far the most satisfactory is the 

^^ quill " bit shown by Fig. 
117. It has no delicate 
parts ; if carefully handled 
it will not split the mate- 
rial ; it enters the work rapidly, m.akes a round, smooth hole, 
and when dull can easily be sharpened by whetting or grind- 
ing. It will not, however, work with the grain. Quill bits as 
small as y^g-" in diameter are in common use. 

Gimlet-bits are illustrated by Fig. ti8, which represents one 
of the best forms. Most -p.„ 

bits of this class are too 
weak to render the ser- 



Fig.T.lT' 



. ns 



56 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

vice expected of them, and soon become bent or broken. They 
are Hkely to split the work and are not easily sharpened. 

94. Bit-Braces. — The well-made wooden brace, which for 
a long time ornamented the walls of the cabinet-maker's shop, 
has disappeared, and the lighter and more convenient iron 
brace is used in its stead. A simple form of iron brace is rep- 
resented by Fig. 119. To insert a bit, grasp the sleeve A and, 
holding it firmly, turn the brace out by using the other hand on 
B, When the jaws, C, are opened sufficiently to admit the bit 
shank, put it in place, reverse the motion of the hand on B, and 
the bit will be fastened. 

ITig. 119 




A ratchet brace is shown by Fig. 120. Its office is to turn 
the bit forward while the brace itself, instead of making a com- 
plete revolution, has only a forward and backward movement. 
As represented by the section AB, the frame c is fastened to 
the body of the brace of which it becomes a part, ^ is a spindle 
which terminates in the socket ^, and / is a ratchet-wheel, 
which is fastened to d. On each side of the ratchet-wheel there 
is a pawl which, when free to move in response to the action of 
a spring, engages the notches in the ratchet-wheel f. With the 
pawls thus engaged, the brace may be used in precisely the same 
way as the one already described. But, by turning the ring 
^, one of the pawls is disengaged, and the other acting alone 



BENCH TOOLS. 



57 



will move the spindle d only when the brace is moving in one 
direction, the pawl simply slipping over the notches of the 
ratchet-wheel when the motion is reversed. In this way, a 
bit may be driven to any depth although each movement of 
the brace may be less than half of a complete turn. By a 
proper movement of the ring g^ the motion of the bit may be 
reversed. 

Fig. 120 




Section A B, 

(Enlarged) 

The ratchet-brace is useful in boring holes near walls, or in 
corners where it is impossible to turn a common brace. 

The size of any brace is indicated by its '^ swing," that is, 
by the diameter of the circle described by B, Fig. 119. The 
better class are nickel-plated, and are thereby prevented from 
rusting. 



58 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



95. A "Universal, Angular, Bit-Stock," such as is repre- 
sented by Fig. 121, is, for many purposes, more useful than 



Fig. ISl 




the ratchet-brace. The bit is inserted at A, and a common 
brace is apphed at C. The mechanical arrangement of the 
parts is such, that, when the brace turns the spindle C, the part 
A which holds the bit is also turned, notwithstanding the in- 
clination of one part to the other.^ Com.pared with the ratchet- 
brace, this has the advantage of producing a continuous motion 
of the bit. By its use a hole may be bored in the corner as 
easily as in the middle of a room. 

The angle of the joint may be changed from that shown to 
one of 180 degrees, by an adjustment at D, 

96. Automatic Boring Tool. — A convenient substitute for 
a brad-awl is represented by Fig. 122. The drill, or bit, A is 



ITig. 12Q 




1 Considered as a mechanical movement, this is known as Hooke's joint. 



BENCH TOOLS. 59 

held in a suitable chuck C, at the end of the bar D, which 
runs in B. The drill is brought into contact with the work, 
and pressure in the direction of the arrow, slides B down upon 
D, and this movement causes D with the drill to revolve. The 
full extent of the movement having been reached, a relaxing of 
pressure leaves D free to return to its first position, as shown, 
the rotary motion of A, meanwhile, being reversed. These 
impulses can be imparted to the drill with great rapidity, and 
the work is quickly done. The dots below the figure, 122, 
indicate the full diameter of the different drills which are fur- 
nished with the tool. 

Miscellaneous Tools. 

97. Windiiig-Sticks, or ''parallel strips," are wooden strips 
of any convenient length, the edges of which are straight and 
parallel. When applied to a surface, they increase its breadth 
in effect, and by thus giving a better opportunity of compari- 
son, show whether the surface is " in wind," or twisted. For 
an illustration of their use, see 75. 

98. Hand Screw-Drivers are in form similar to that shown 
by Fig. 123. The part which is to engage the screw should 
have parallel sides, as shown by Fig. 124, and never be wedge - 

Fig, 134 



TTig. 1S3 





shaped. Fig. 125. In the latter case, it will be seen that force 
applied in an attempt to turn a screw, will have a tendency 
toward lifting the screw-driver from its place. 

A set of three or four screw- drivers, having blades varying in 



6o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 



ITig. 1S6 



size to suit different-sized screws, so that a fairly good fit may 
always be made, are indispensable to good work where screws 
_ are much used. 

Fig. IS 5 

99. Brace Screw-Drivers, instead of having 
wooden handles, are provided with shanks for 
use in a brace. A good form is shown by 
Fig. 126. The brace gives a continuous mo- 
tion, and 
the screw 
may be 

set much more rapidly by 

its use than with the hand screw-driver. There are many cases, 

however, in which a brace is useless. 

100. Hammers. — Fig. 127 shows a carpenter's hammer. The 
head A is wholly of steel. The face B is hardened so as not 
to be injured by repeated blows upon the nail, which is com- 
paratively soft, but the idea prevailing among inexperienced 
workmen, that the hammer is indestructible, is a false one. 
When two bodies are brought together forcibly, as a hammer 





and a nail, the softer body yields, and a change takes place in 
its form. If the nail were harder than the hammer, it would not 
be injured, but the hammer would show an impression of the 
nail head. Careless or ignorant workmen sometimes take an 



BENCH TOOLS. 6l 

old file for a punch or a nail-set, and use a hammer upon it. 
The file is harder than the hammer, and the result is that the 
face of the latter is badly scarred. 

The claw C makes the hammer a very effective tool for 
withdrawing nails. 

Hammers vary in size from seven to twenty ounces; the 
bench-worker usually employs one weighing from fourteen to 
sixteen ounces. 

loi. The Hatchet is a useful tool for bringing large pieces 

of material to size roughly, and in skillful hands it may be 

used with accuracy as well as effect. When it is compared 

with the hammer, it will be seen that a blade C, Fig. 128, takes 

B 

Pig. 128 




the place of the claw C, Fig. 127. As an instrument for driv- 
ing nails it is clumsy, and the opening d, for withdrawing nails, 
amounts to but little. In sharpening, the hatchet is ground on 
both sides of the blade, and whetted on an oilstone. 

102. Mallets. — The difference in effect between a blow 
given by a hammer and one given by a mallet is so great that, 
although similar in many respects, the two tools are adapted to 
widely different uses. A blow from a hard, elastic hammer is 
sharp and decisive, and its force is absorbed almost as soon as 
it is received. Comparatively speaking, therefore, its effect 
must be local. If such a blow is received on a chisel handle, 
for example, a large part of its force is wasted in affecting the 



62 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

handle, a part only being transmitted through the handle to 
the cutting edge, the only place where it can be of use. A 
blow from a soft, less elastic mallet, on the contrary, is more 
general in its effect. Much of the force remains for an instant 
stored in the mallet, by which it is given out somewhat grad- 
ually, allowing time for the impulse to pass beyond the point 
where it is received. The effect of two different explosive 
agents will serve as an illustration. As compared with nitro- 
glycerine, powder burns slowly, and, when put into a rifle barrel, 
gradually develops its force upon the bullet until, when the lat- 
ter reaches the end of the barrel, it has gained velocity enough 
to carry it a mile or more. But if a charge of nitro-glycerine, 



TTig. 1S9 




having a total explosive force no greater than that of the pow- 
der, be substituted, the result will be very different. The rapid- 
ity with which nitro-glycerine burns — the suddenness of the 
impulse — is such that, before the bullet can respond to its influ- 
ence, the breach of the barrel is destroyed. 

The blow of a mallet on a chisel resembles the action of 
powder on a bullet. It is 2i pushing diCtion, and, in this respect, 
is unlike that of the hammer. A chisel, therefore, will be 
driven deeper into the work by a blow from a mallet than by 
one of the same force from a hammer, while a chisel handle 
which has withstood blows from a mallet for years, may be 
shattered in a single hour by use under a hammer. 

An excellent form of mallet is shown by Fig. 129. 



BENCH TOOLS. 63 

103. Sand-Paper is neither a tool nor an appliance, strictly 
speaking, but, on account of its tool-like action, it should be 
mentioned with them. The "sand" used in making sand-paper 
is crushed quartz, and is very hard, angular, and sharp. It is 
graded as to degree of coarseness, by precipitation, and then 
glued to paper. The finest sand-paper is marked 00, from which 
the gradations run o, |-, i, i^, 2, 2^, and 3, which is the coarsest. 

104. Miter-Boxes are useful in cutting the ends of light 
strips of wood at an angle of 45 degrees ; they are frequently 
adapted to cutting at other angles. When of wood, like the 
one represented by Fig. 219, they are usually made by the 
workman himself. 

A wooden miter-box is composed of three pieces — a bot- 
tom and two sides. It is necessary that the bottom piece 
be uniform in width and thickness, and have jointed edges, and 
it is well to prepare the other pieces in the same way. After 
the box is nailed, the sides should be square with the outside 
face of the bottom piece ; this surface may now be used as 
a working-face. Lay off across the working-face two lines at a 
distance apart equal to the width of the face, thus forming with 
the outside edges of the box, a square. The diagonals of this 
square will represent the two oblique cuts, one marked c, and 
the one taken by the saw. Fig. 219. Project up the sides such 
lines from the points thus fixed, as will be useful in making the 
cuts ; the sawing is then done with the back-saw. No special 
directions are required for laying off the cut d. 

105. Iron Miter-Boxes are ^^^ ^ Fig. 130 

now in general use. The ac- 
curacy with which work may 
be done by the use of one 
will more than compensate any 
bench-worker for the money 
invested in it. Fig. 130 may be taken as a type ; the work A 




64 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

is supported by the frame as shown, while the proper position of 
the saw is maintained by the uprights B, which, in the sawing 
process, slide down into the standards C The saw may be set 
at any angle with the back of the box Z>, by swinging the frame 
E, which supports the standards C ; ^ is held in position by a 
suitable fastening operated by F. 

1 06. Bench Clamps are useful in holding two or more pieces 
of material together temporarily. They are particularly valu- 
able for keeping pieces that have been glued, in place until they 
are dry. 

Wooden clamps^ or hand-screws, are of the form shown by 
Fig. 131. The whole length of the jaws, AB and A^B\ may 
be made to bear evenly upon the work, or to bear harder at 
certain points, as AA^ or BB\ 

Iron clamps are illustrated by Fig. 132, but the mechanical 
arrangement differs in different makes. Such clamps are very 

ir-ig. 13^ 
Fig. 13X 





useful in many kinds of work, but, all things considered, it is 
doubtful whether they are as serviceable to the bench-worker 
as the wooden ones just described. 

107. Grindstones are selected with reference to their "grit." 
A coarse, soft-grit stone will remove material much more rap- 
idly than one of finer grit, but the surface produced will be 
very rough compared with that produced by the other. Thus, 



BENCH TOOLS. 65 

when it is necessary to remove material for the purpose of giv- 
ing shape to a casting or forging, the coarse, soft-grit stone is 
better ; but if a smooth cutting edge is required, one of fine 
grit should be used. For wood-working tools, a stone rather 
fine and soft is found best. The speed of a power grindstone 
must vary from 500 to 1000 circumferential feet a minute, de- 
pending upon its diameter, and the accuracy and steadiness 
with which it runs. It may not be well to run a 20" stone 
beyond the minimum limit, while one of 4' or 5' may give good 
results if run beyond the maximum. As a rule, a stone for 
tool=grinding is at its maximum speed when, if run faster, it 
would throw water from its face. 

By circumferential speed is meant the speed of the circumfer- 
ence of the stone. This is found by multiplying the diameter 
of the stone, in feet, by 3. 141 6 (ratio of diameter to circum- 
ference), which will give the circumference of the stone, in feet, 
and this product by the number of revolutions per minute.-^ 

1 Example /. — A 4' stone is run at 30 revolutions a minute; what is its 
circumferential speed? 

The circumference of a 4' stone is 
4' X 3-1416 =12.56'. 

This would be the speed of the stone if it were to make but I revolution 
per minute; but, since it makes 30 revolutions, its speed is 

12.56' X 30= 376.80' or 377' (nearly). 

Example II. — It is desired that a 30" stone should have a circumferen- 
tial speed of 280' per minute. How many revolutions should it make? 
30" = 2.5'. 
The circumference of a stone 2.5' in diameter is 

2.5' X 3-1416= 7.85'. 

This would be the speed of the stone if it were to make I revolution per 
minute. But the circumferential speed is 280' per minute, and therefore 
the number of revolutions made must be 

280' -^ 7.85 = 36 (nearly). 



Q6 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 

1 08. Water is used on a stone as a means of carrying off 
the heat resulting from friction between stone and tool ; it also 
washes away the particles of stone and steel that come from 
the grinding, and which, without the water, would fill the inter- 
stices between the cutting points of the stone, and make the 
surface so smooth as to be useless. 

A grindstone, when not in use, should not stand in or over 
water. Water softens a stone, and one unequally exposed to 
moisture will be found softest in such places as are most 
exposed. When brought into use, the softer parts wear away 
more rapidly than the others, causing the stone to become ^* out 
of round.'* Water is best supplied from a tank, or from service 
pipes, so arranged that it may be shut off when the stone is not 
running, the drip-pan under the stone being at all tim_es per- 
fectly drained. After every precaution has been taken, the 
stone will in time become untrue and need attention. 

109. To True a Grindstone. — When a stone becomes 
untrue, or the outline of the face, which should be slightly con- 
vex, becomes concave, it may be corrected by using a piece of 
soft iron as a turning tool, the stone being run dry. The action 
of the tool may be explained as follows : the soft iron allows 
small particles of the stone to imbed themselves in its surface, 
from which position they act against the revolving stone, and 
the cutting is done by these imbedded particles and not by the 
iron. The latter is worn in the process, however, and, as its 
cutting surface becomes enlarged, it should be turned to bring 
a new angle or face into action. This operation is easily per- 
formed by using a piece of gas pipe (about i") for a turning tool. 

no. Truing Devices are now generally attached to power 
grindstones. They are of several forms, of which that shown 
by Fig. 133 may be taken as an example. The base of this at- 
tachment is secured to the grindstone frame as near the stone as 
may be convenient. ^ is a hardened steel screw which revolves 




BENCH TOOLS. 6/ 

freely on its bearings B, The frame in which B runs is pivoted 

at C, in such a way that by a movement of the hand-wheel 

D, B will move forward in the direction of the arrow. By 

adjusting the hand-whed D, A is brought into contact with the 

face of the moving stone, and at once -fx^. 133 

begins to revolve. The action of its 

thread would move it endwise, were 

it not prevented by its bearings. The 

effect of this angular advancement of 

the thread, which is not met by a 

corresponding lateral movement of 

the parts in contact, is a shearing cut across the face of the 

stone. When the screw becomes dull it may be softened and 

recut. 

111. Oilstones. — The most useful of all oilstones are 
found near Hot Springs, Arkansas. They are divided into two 
classes, known to the trade as the Arkansas stone and the 
Washita stone. The former is of very fine grain, appearing 
much like white marble. It is used in sharpening the most 
delica-te instruments, and produces an edge of remarkable 
keenness. The Washita stone is much coarser in grain, with a 
color sometimes almost white, but more frequently shaded by 
lines of a reddish cast. It cuts with rapidity, and with much 
greater delicacy than would be expected of so coarse a stone. 
Probably no better oilstone exists for sharpening wood- working 
and similar tools. 

112. Oil is used on an oilstone for the same reason that 
water is used on a grindstone. To be serviceable, it should be 
as free as possible from all tendency to become thick or gummy. 
A good quality of sperm oil, or even lard oil, may be used ; olive 
oil is frequently recommended. 

113. Form of Oilstones. — It is evident that if oilstones 
could be made round, and mounted like grindstones, they could 




68 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

be used more effectively than when only a small block is avail- 
able. The reason they are not so mounted is that, in their 
native bed, the whetstone layers are traversed in every direction 
by veins of hard quartz, which, if allowed to enter into a finished 
stone, would destroy the cutting edge of any tool that might 
be appHed to it. It is so uncommon to find large pieces of 
whetstone free from the quartz, that disks above 4" or 5" in 
diameter can be afforded only by those to whose work they are 
indispensable. 

For bench purposes, Washita stones are about i'^ X 2'' x 7"; 

but no attempt is made to have them 

B'ig. 134 q£ ^^y uniform size. Such a stone, when 

set into a block and provided with a 

cover to keep out the dust, is ready 

for use. See Fig. 134. Its surface 

should be kept as nearly as possible straight, in the direction of 

its length, and should never be hollowed across its breadth. 

When out of shape it must be trued. 

114. Slips of Washita stone whose cross-sections are round, 

square, triangular, etc., are supplied 
B^ig. i3£5 by the trade. A wedge-shaped slip 

is represented by Fig. 135 ; it is a 
form extremely useful to the bench- 
worker. 

115. To True an Oilstone, mix water with sharp sand until 
the mixture is thin enough to run. Apply a quantity of this 
to the surface of a flat board or plank, and, with the face that 
is to be trued in contact with the sand-covered board, move 
the stone about, frequently changing the direction of its motion. 
Under this treatment, the surface of the stone will be evened 
up rapidly. If the sand that is first applied becomes dull, it 
may be replaced by new. 



BENCH TOOLS. 69 

Another, and usually a more convenient way, consists in sub- 
stituting for the sand a sheet of sand-paper tacked over the 
edge of the board. Coarse paper may be used at first, and 
afterwards a finer grade selected for finishing the work. 



PART II. 



o><Ko 



BENCH WORK.1 



ii6. No work at the bench (9-13) is more important than 
that relating to the location and production of lines. Careless- 
ness or want of skill in this will always be manifest in the fin- 
ished work. To the beginner it may seem monotonous, and 
even hard, to stand at the bench several hours before turning 
a shaving ; but he must understand that a scratch cannot be 
called a line, and that patience and accuracy are the chief 
requisites in skillful manipulation. 

117. Location of Points (14-17). — All measurements must 
begin somewhere. The greater the number of points from which 
to begin, the more chances there are for mistakes. Thus in 



1 Note. — The material, or "stock," needed for the exercises of the 
course should be straight-grained, free from knots, well-seasoned, and 
machine-dressed. A good quality of either white pine or yellow poplar is 
to be preferred. Good work cannot be done in poor material. 

By easy steps the operations to be performed become more and more 
difficult. The student should not advance to a new exercise until the pre- 
ceding one has been completed in a good, workman-like manner. A fail- 
ure, unless the result of accident, should invariably be followed by another 
trial of the exercise. Otherwise, a careless habit is encouraged. 

The course may appear brief, but experience has demonstrated its com- 
pleteness as a preparation for constructive work in any of the lines to 
which it leads. After the fifteen exercises have been finished, if time 
remains, any ordinary piece of bench work may be undertaken. 



T2 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

measuring from E to F^ Fig. 136, there is one chance for a mis- 
take. If G is located by measuring from F, then in the loca- 

ITig. 136 



IE, ^ Q 



.c 



SIDE ELEVATION CFACE A). END ELEVATION. 

tion of G there are two chances for a mistake, — one in locating 
F, another in locating G\ but if G is located by direct meas- 
urement from E, there is, as in the case of F, but one chance 
of error. 

In locating a point by measuring from a point or line already 
fixed, it is necessary to make some kind of mark to indicate 
the distance. Haste in such work frequently results in a mark 
similar to that shown at E, Fig. 136, a "point" through which 
a line may be drawn with ease but with doubtful accuracy. A 
dot from a sharp pencil, as shown at F, Fig. 136, is much 
better ; but if by reason of roughness of surface such a dot is 
too indistinct, two lines meeting each other at an angle may 
be used, G, Fig. 136, the point of juncture indicating the 
required location. 

118. A Jointed Face is a surface that has been made a true 
plane. The necessities of practice so often require jointed 
faces at right angles to an adjoining face, that to many the 
term has come to mean not only a true plane, but such a sur- 
face at right angles to another, from which it is said to have 
been "jointed." 

119. A Working-Face is one selected as a guide for opera- 
tions to be performed on an adjoining face. For accurate work 
the working-face must be jointed. At this face, all measure- 
ments have their beginning, and by it all lines are produced. If 
a piece of material is to receive lines on two opposite sides, as 
A and C, Fig. 136, either B ox D may be used as a working- 



BENCH WORK. 73 

face, but not both ; if it is to receive lines on four faces, as A, B, 
C, and D, two of them, as A and B, for example, must be work- 
ing-faces ; if on six faces, three must be working- faces. For 
example, suppose lines are to be made on the surface A, Fig. 
136, from j5 as a working-face ; those running across the piece, 
as ab, will then be made perpendicular to B, and those running 
lengthwise, as cd, parallel to B. If, on the contrary, the work- 
ing-face is disregarded, and some of the lines are made from 
B and some from D, their truth will depend not only on the 
truth of B and D as individual surfaces, but also upon their 
parallelism, and hence there is a double chance of error. Only 
one face, therefore, should be used from which to do the lining 
for a given surface. If lines are to be made on all four sides, 
as A, B, C, and B>, and A and B are the working-faces, all 
lines on A and C can be made from B, and all lines on B and 
jD can be made from A. It will be seen, therefore, that in 
making a piece a true square in section, it is necessary to use 
the beam of the square on only two faces. 

EXERCISE No. i. — Measuring and Lining. 

120. The stock required is if inches thick, 4 inches wide, 
and 4 feet long, or, as usually written, if" x 4" X 4'. Fig. 137 
shows the completed exercise.^ To aid in following directions, 
it will be well to letter the four faces of the work A, B, C, and 
D, respectively, as indicated by Fig. 137 (End Elevation), and 
to mark two of them, as A and B, working- faces. 

Operations to be performed on Face A^yrou B as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

121. Spacing with Pencil and Rule (18). — By use of 
pencil and rule, lay off points a, i" apart along the whole 

1 Fig. 137 is broken in accordance with tlie principles given in 6. 



74 



BENCH WORK IN WOODc 



length of the piece, the Hne of points being kept straight by 
preserving a uniform distance between them and the working- 
face B, This distance may be anything that is convenient, 
and will be sufficiently accurate if determined by the eye. 





















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„ . Working Face B. 

Face A, 

Working Face A. 



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END ELEVATION, 



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Gauged Lines tohe\" apart. 




Face C 



122. Cross-lining with Pencil and Framing-Square (19- 

21). — The points having been located, draw through each a 
line, as alf (Face A), using the framing- square and pencil. 



BENCH WORK. 75 

While a line is being produced by the outside of the shorter 
leg of the square be, Fig. 138, allow the longer leg ab to drop 
down so that its inside edge may be firmly pressed against the 
working-face, as indicated by the arrows d. When the progress 

Fig. 138 



JS- 



of the hning causes the leg ab to project beyond the work so 
much as to be imperfectly guided by the working-face,- as 
shown at a'b\ Fig. 138, its position should be reversed as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline. This method must be observed 
in using any similar tool, as the try-square, bevel, etc. 

123. Chalk-Lining (36). — Lay off points on lines ab and 
ad y^ apart, the first point in each case being ^^ from the 
working-face. Through the points thus located, chalk-lines are 
to be made, as shown by face A, Fig. 137. 

Insert the awl at the first point on the line ab, and drawing 
the cord tight with one hand, apply the chalk with the other, 



ITig. 139 




beginning at the awl. Care must be taken that the cake of 
chalk is not cut to pieces by the cord. A little practice will 
make it easy to hold the cord under the thumb in such a way 
as to form a small shoulder on the chalk, Fig. 139, which by 



7^ 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the friction of the cord will be gradually carried across the face 
of the cake ; another is then formed to take its place. When 
the cord has been chalked, stretch it over the point on the hne 



TTig. X40 




ad that corresponds to the point on the line ab at which the 
awl is inserted. Then raise the cord near the middle as shown 
by Fig. 140, and by suddenly releasing it, cause it to ^^snap'* 
on the surface of the work. In snapping, the cord should be 
drawn up vertically, for if drawn at an inclination as shown by 

a, Fig. 141, a wide blurred line will 
be produced. Repeat this operation 
for each of the points, finishing face 
A as shown. Each line should be 
clear and well-defined. Try to make 
each one better than the preceding. 
Never snap more than once be- 
tween the same points. 




.141 



Operations to be performed on Face B^ from ^ as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

124. Lining with Pencil and Try-Square (22). — Hold 
the beam of the square firmly against the working-face, and, 
using the outside edge of the blade as a guide, continue across 
face B the lines on the working- face which were made by use 
of the framing-square. If the work has been well done, the 
lines will be sharp, straight, and parallel, as shown by ab, cd, 
etc., Face B, Fig. 137. 



BENCH WORK. 



77 



125, Lining with Pencil and Bevel (23-25). — The bevel 
is to be set at an angle of 45 degrees, and the lines ag,fg, 
etc., drawn from the points made by the intersection of the 
lines already drawn and the working-face. Face A, Fig. 137. 
Hold the beam of the bevel firmly against the working-face, 
and use the outside of the blade to guide the pencil. Let the 
beam of the bevel bear firmly on the working-face. 

126. "Gauging" Lines with Pencil and Rule. — These 
lines, as ik, hi, etc., are to be spaced ^" apart, as shown by 
Face B. 

Grasp the rule at a proper distance from its end, in the left 
hand, and press the forefinger against the working-face^ to 
which the rule is perpendicular, as shown by Fig. 142. With 
the right hand apply the pencil to the work, and at the same 
time press it against the end of the rule. In this way, the 
pencil against the rule, and the fingers of the left hand against 
the working-face, move along the length of the work, thus pro- 
ducing a line parallel to 
the working-face. It is 
not necessary to lay off 
points, since the distance 
between the pencil and 
the edge can always be 
known by observing the 
graduations of the rule. 
In making a line, the 
pencil will be more easily 
kept in position if con- 
siderable force is used in pressing it against the rule ; to 
prevent this force from displacing the rule, it must be met 
by a greater force acting in the opposite direction. See arrows 
c and d. 

This is a rapid method of producing lines parallel to the 
working-face, where exactness is not demanded. 




78 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Operation to be Performed on Face D from ^ as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

127. Spacing by Use of Scriber (37) and Rule. — Points 

and lines made with a pencil, while accurate enough for many 
purposes, are too inexact to define the proportions of different 
parts of a joint. Where good fitting of any kind is required, 
the pencil should not be used, but all points and lines be 
made with a scriber. The scriber should be sharp, and should 
make a clearly-defined cut, not a dent. 

Using the rule, then, to determine the distances, substitute 
the scriber for the pencil, and, following the dimensions given 
(Face Z>, Fig. 137), lay off points along the length of the work 
through which the lines ab^ cd, etc., are to be drawn. 

128. Lining with Scriber and Try-Square. — Through the 
points already placed, scribe lines, as ab, cd, etc., with the try- 
square. 

Care must be taken that the advancing edge of the scriber 
is not turned out from the square blade ; in such a case, 
it is likely to "run out" from the square and give a crooked 
line. Neither should the scriber be turned in so much as to 
crowd the square from its position. After a little practice, lines 
can be scribed easily and rapidly. 

129. Lining with Scriber and Bevel. — Set the bevel at an 
angle of 45 degrees and, using it as before, scribe lines from 
the ends of the try-square lines, as shown by be, ad, etc. 



130. Gauge-Lining (32- 
35). The gauge provides the 
most ready means for the ac- 
curate production of lines 
parallel to a working-face. 
As shown in Fig. 143, the 
beam of the gauge B carries 




BENCH WORK. 



79 



a steel spur Cy which does the marking. B also carries a 
head D, which is adjustable on the beam. 

To use the gauge, adjust the head so that the distance be- 
tween it and the spur C is equal to that between the working- 
face and the required line; then close the fingers over the 
head and extend the thumb on the beam towards the spur, as 
shown by Fig. 143. Holding the gauge in this manner, bring 
the head against the working- face, move the gauge along the 
work, and the line will 
be produced. To pre- ^^^ irig. 14=4= 

vent the spur from stick- 
ing, the first stroke 
should make a light line, 
which may be strength- 
ened by a second, and 
even a third passing of 
the gauge. The depth of the line in each case is regulated by 
turning the gauge as indicated by the relative position of Y 
and X, Fig. 144. It is obvious that no spacing is necessary 
when this tool is to be used. 

By use of the gauge, lay off ^" apart the lines y>^, eg, etc., 
Face V, Fig. 137. 







Operations to be performed on Face C, from B as a 
Working- Face, Fig. 137. 

131. The lines on this face are to be used in Exercise No. 3. 
By applying the principles already developed (121, 122) locate 
the lines as shown by the drawing. Face C, Fig. 137. This 
work may be done with the pencil, the lines ad and a'd' being 
" gauged " by use of the rule (126). The line cd, End Eleva- 
tion, may be made in the same way. 



8o 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 




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BENCH WORK. 



8l 



EXERCISE No. 2. 
Practice with Chisel and Gouge (39, 40, and 42) e 

The stock required is -|'' X 4V' X 8". 

Figo 145 shows the lines that are needed, all of which are 
produced as explained in the foregoing exercise, except the 
arcs of circles, which must be put in with the dividers (26); 
A and B are working-faces. An end elevation of the finished 
piece is represented by Fig. 146. 

Fig. 14.6 




li^ig. l^T 



132. To remove the Portion abc, Fig. 145. — It is always 
best, in removing surplus wood with the chisel, to cut across 
the grain, as any attempt to carry the cutting edge along 
the grain is quite sure to result in a splitting action, the 
chisel following the grain of the wood, 
which splits ahead of it, and pre- 
vents the operator from controlling its 
course. In removing the portion abc, 
the work should be held in the vise with 
the working-face A toward the operator. 
A i" chisel will be found of convenient 
size. Beginning at one end, make suc- 
cessive cuts with the chisel, as shown 
by Fig. 147. Each stroke of the chisel 
should cut almost to the full depth re- 
quired {i.e, remove a shaving from the 
face of nearly the whole triangle adc), 
the thickness of the cutting varying with 
the character of the material and the plan. 




ELEVATION. 




82 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Wig, 148 




Strength of the operator. It is best, however, to go slowly, for 
the chisel will not be properly guided if the workman's whole 
strength is required to push it through 
the wood. The surface thus produced 
will not be smooth, but it will be true to 
the line. To smooth it, a wide chisel 
should be used, as shown by Fig. 148, 
and a longitudinal movement im-parted 
to it at the same time it is being pushed forward. 

It will be noticed that both chisels are applied to the work 
in such a way as to turn the shaving from the bevel, and not 
from the flat face. This is done that the flat face may be avail- 
able as a guiding surface, which, when kept in contact with the 
solid material back of the cut (see ^, Fig. 148), will insure 
straightness in the forward movement of the cutting edge, and, 
consequently, accuracy of work. 



133- 



TTig. 149 



To remove the Portion defg^ Fig. 145. — With the 
work flat on the bench, face A 
uppermost, place a f chisel so 
as to bring its cutting edge in 
the position occupied by the 
line M, which is about -|-'' from 
the end of the work. With the 
mallet, drive the chisel verti- 
cally downward, as indicated by 
^, Fig. 149. When down to the 
depth of the required cut, the 
chisel should be pushed over to 
the position a, to make room 
for the next cut, after which it 
may be withdrawn and placed 
Section ^x:. j^^ position again at e. This 

operation is to be repeated until the whole length of the piece 




BENCH WORK. 83 

has been passed over, making the work appear as indicated, in 
part, by Sec. AB, Fig. 149. The cuttings may then be re- 
moved. The sides of the opening will be even and fairly 
smooth. The distance the chisel is advanced (/) must de- 
pend on the material, and the depth to which it is driven ; it 
should never be so great as to risk the breaking of the chisel 
when it is moved from position ^ to <^. 

To remove the portion Jkon, Fig, 145. — Using the chisel as 
in the last exercise, remove the portion Jklm, and afterwards 
the portion Imon, 

134. To remove the Portion pqr, Fig. 145. — This is done 
with the gouge, which, unlike the chisel, may be used with the 
grain, as indicated by Fig. 150, the 

concave surface of the work allow- 
ing its individual fibers to give 
greater support to one another in 
resisting a spHtting tendency. It 
will be seen that the bevel of the 
gouge is its only guiding surface. This being necessarily short, 
the tool is a difficult one to use. Light cuts should be taken, 
especially when the grain of the wood is not favorable. 

To finish Exercise No, 2. — By use of the chisel round the 
part between the linesy^ and no, and also the part between the 
point m and the line ks, to agree with the finished form shown 
by Fig. 1 46, and smooth all chiseled surfaces not already finished. 

EXERCISE No. 3. — Sawing (49-55). 

The stock required is the finished piece from Exercise 
No. I ; it is to be cut as indicated by the lining on Face C, 
Fig. 137- 

135. Handling the Saw. — The saw should be grasped 
firmly with the right hand, a better control of it being secured 




84 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



by extending the forefinger along the side of the handle. In 
starting a cut, the side of the saw should be pressed against the 
thumb of the left hand, which then acts as a guide, as shown 
by Fig. 151. The saw must not be crowded against the work, 
but, on the contrary, to prevent the teeth from penetrating too 
deeply, its forward movement should be accompanied by a lift- 
ing action of the wrist. The saw should always be moved with 
a long stroke, bringing as many teeth into action as possible. A 
short, jerky movement is at no time necessary or desirable. It 
is good practice for the beginner to keep up the proper motion 
of the saw, while maintaining a very light contact between it 
and the work. Success in this exercise is to be measured by 
uniformity of contact throughout all points of the stroke. 

There are two errors which are likely to be made in sawing : 
first, sawing off the line; and, secondly, sawing at a wrong angle. 



TTig. ISl 




ITig. ISS 




136. To guide the Saw. — If the saw tends to run off the 
line, the blade may be slightly twisted in the direction it ought 
to take, as shown by Fig. 152. It will immediately respond by 
a change in its course. The correction should be made as 
soon as the error is discovered. 



BENCH WORK. 



85 



ir-ig. 1S3 




Fig. lS4r 



\ 



137. To correct the Angle of the cut, the saw should be bent, 
as shown by Fig. 153, and at the same time moved vertically, 
as shown by Fig. 154, instead of in the usual direction, which is 
indicated by the dotted line ab in the same figure. 

138. Rip-sawing on the line ab and a^b\ Face C, Fig. 137. — 
Start the saw on the lines ab and cd (the latter shown in End 

Elevation). By following 

the first line the proper 

direction of the cut will be 

insured, and by keeping 

on the second the piece 

will be cut square with the 

working -face. The saw 

once started, the truth of 

the angle may be occasion- 
ally tested by the try-square 

applied as shown by Fig. 

155. Attention given to 

this matter at first, will 

soon make the operator 

sufficiently skillful to judge 

the angle accurately 

enough for most work. 
After cutting on the line 

ab^ cut also on the line 

a'b\ 
In sawing a piece from 

one end to the other in 
one cut, the saw, in coming out, should not 
be allowed to injure the trestle. This danger 
may be met by slanting the board so that it 
will be supported by one corner, thus leav- 
ing an open space between the trestle and the point where the 
cut will end, as shown by Fig. 156. 



Fig. ise 



Fig. IGS 
n 



P^^ 




ELEVATION, 



86 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



139. Cross-cutting on the lines ef 2ccAgh, Face C, Fig. 137. 
— Observe the general directions that have already been given. 

When the piece that is being cut is almost divided, there 
is danger that the uncut portion may break and splinter. This 
tendency must be guarded against by properly supporting the 
work, either by the hand or by a suitable arrangement of the 
trestles. 

EXERCISE No. 4. — Planing (66-74). 

The stock required is the pieces resulting from Exercise 
No. 3. 

140. In grasping a plane, there is always shown a disposition 
to place the thumb of the left hand on the right side of the 
plane. This should not be done ; for, as will be seen by Fig. 157, 
when the plane is drawn back, the arm, by contact with the 
body, becomes stiffened, and the motion of the plane restricted. 
The hand, therefore, should be so turned as to bring the thumb 
on the left side, as shown by Fig. 158. Held in this manner, 
the plane may be easily carried well forward and well back. 

Fig. IST' T'ig. 1^8 




When the surface of the work is large, begin to plane at its 
right-hand end. With a series of easy strokes pass across the 
face of the work, then step forward and take a second series of 



BENCH WORK. 8/ 

Strokes, and so on until the whole surface has been passed over. 
In the first series of strokes it is necessary to draw the plane off 
the work, as shown by Fig. 159. In doing this, sufficient 
pressure must be exerted in the direc- 
tion of the arrow to overcome any 

tendency to tip, as indicated by the 1 ^^ )V 

dotted outline ; in the last series of J^^^^^'^V^-:!^"^^"^^ 

strokes the wrist may, for the same 

reason, be rested easily on the back of the plane. To make 
the strokes between the ends properly, the plane should be 
lifted so that the shaving may be finished before the forward 
movement of the plane ceases. The plane need not be hfted 
bodily from the work. The natural, slightly-upward move- 
ment of the arm when stretched out, as shown by Fig. 160, 
will accomplish all that is necessary. 

Fig. I6O 




If the plane is allowed full contact with the work on the 
backward stroke, a dulling effect on the cutting edge is pro- 
duced, especially if the work is rough and gritty. Under 
such circum.stances, it is better to raise the plane from the 
work entirely, or turn it on its edge, or draw it back in the 
position shown by Fig. 160. On small, clean surfaces, how- 
ever, it is best to disregard this caution, since sharpening 



88 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



ITig. 161 




takes less time than placing the plane before beginning each 

stroke. 

In planing a narrow surface, for example, the edge of a 
board, difficulty in keeping the plane 
on the work may be overcome by 
grasping it in such a way that the 
fingers of the left hand, while press- 
ing against the face of the plane, may 
maintain a light contact with the 
work, as shown by Fig. i6i. 

141. The mouth of a plane sometimes becomes clogged, 
and, as a result, the cutting ceases. This may be caused 
by a dull cutting edge, which scrapes off fibers which it can- 
not cut ; or by the low set of the cap on the iron ; or by a 
bad fit between cap and iron, which allows a shaving to find its 
way between them, thus forming an obstruction to the passage 
of other cuttings. In new planes, the stoppage may be due to 
narrowness of the mouth, which will not allow a thick shaving 
to pass. It should be remembered, however, that narrowness 
of mouth is an element in the production of smooth work, and 
for this reason the opening should be no wider than is abso- 
lutely necessary. 

To preserve the face of the plane, apply occasionally a few 
drops of lubricating oil. 

142. Jointing the sawed edge of the if" X3" X 16" piece 
from Exercise No. 3, to finish at if' X 2f" X 16". Set the 

Fig. 16S 

Scale, li=l' 






/ 



^^ 



21" 

i 



^B 



gauge at 2|" and from the working-face B, Fig. 162, gauge 



B 



BENCH WORK. 89 

lines all around the piece, as e/ and ^g. Fasten the piece in 
the vise with the sawed edge up ; plane nearly to line with the 
jack-plane and finish with the fore-plane. 

143. Planing to a Square each of the four if '^ X 2" X i6'' 
pieces from Exercise No. 3, their finished size to be i|" X i|" 
X 16". Select a straight face, or, if none is exactly right, cor- 
rect the best and mark it as a working-face. Let this be done 
on each of the four pieces. All old marks are to irig.aes 
be planed off and new ones made as needed. Sup- d 
pose Fig. 163 to represent an end of one of the 
pieces, and let A be its working-face. With the 
fore-plane, joint B from A, and mark ^ as a second 
working-face. Repeat this operation on each of the other 
pieces. Set the gauge at i|" (the width to which each side 
is to finish), and from the working-face A gauge a line on B, 
From working-face B joint C to line, and perform this opera- 
tion on each remaining piece. From B sl^ a, working- face 
with the gauge set as before, produce lines on A and C, and 
plane Z> to these lines. This done, the four pieces should be 
of the same size, and true squares in section. 

144. Whenever a series of similar operations is to be per- 
formed on two or more pieces, the method developed by the 
foregoing exercise should always be followed. By carrying all 
the pieces along together, the work will be most easily and 
most rapidly accomplished. 

145. Smooth Surfaces cannot always be produced by a 
plane. The presence of knots or a crooked grain causes the 
work to split in advance of the cutting edge, and a rough sur- 
face results. A sharp plane set to take a fine shaving, will 
do much to remedy this evil, but it cannot be entirely over- 
come. Surfaces, such as a table top or a door panel, which 
are not required to be true, may be made as smooth as possible 




90 BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 

with a plane, and the rough spots reduced afterwards by means 
of a hand-scraper, appHed as shown by Fig. 164. A surface 
irio..i64 ^^^^ ^^ required to be true as well as 

smooth, is best smoothed by a scraper 
mounted like a plane-iron. Such a 
scraper may be made to act uniformly 
over an entire surface, whereas the hand- 
scraper is useful on rough spots only. 
The requirement of both truth and 
smoothness, however, is very unusual. 
True surfaces are necessary about a 
joint, but the parts of a joint are smooth enough as left 
by a plane. On the other hand, a surface that is required 
to be perfectly smooth, is one which is made to be seen, 
and will be sufficiently true if the eye does not detect its 
inaccuracy. 

146. Sand-Papering (103). — The use of sand-paper should 
be confined to the removal of the minute fiber which is raised 
and left by the plane. This fiber is usually invisible, but its 
presence may be detected by comparing a surface newly-planed 
with a similar surface upon which sand-paper has been judi- 
ciously used ; the latter will be much smoother. In applying 
sand-paper, the motion should be '' with the grain." To pre- 
vent the destruction of sharp corners or delicate features of any 
sort, the sand-paper should be held about, or fastened to, a 
block of wood corresponding somewhat to the form of the 
work — a fiat block for a fiat surface, a curved block for a 
curved surface. A piece of thick leather is sometimes used 
instead of the wooden block, and is often more convenient, as 
it may be bent to fit almost any surface. 

Sand-paper will not satisfactorily reduce irregularities in a 
surface, and should never be substituted for the scraper. As 
has been implied, it will simply remove the fiber, and a few 



BENCH WORK. 



91 



Strokes arc generally found to be sufficient ; more are likely to 
result in injury. 

EXERCISE No. 5. — Box. 

The stock required is |^" X 6" X 24I-" ; it must be lined as 
shown by Fig. 165, and cut into five pieces. The finished box 
is shown by Fig. 166. 

Scale, li=l' 



1 10"— 



--41"- 



— r 
i 
-io--i- 



jL 




147. If on each of the five pieces there is a surface suffi- 
ciently true for a working-face, it should be marked as such : 
otherwise, a working-face should 
be made. From the working- 
face joint one edge on each 
piece and mark it as the work- 
ing-edge. Set the gauge at 2f " 
(the inside depth of the box) 
and gauge the side and end 
pieces to this depth, after which 
joint them to line. From the 
working edge, with the try- 
square, scribe on the working- 
face of all the pieces, including 
the bottom, a hne about ^" from 
one end. With the back-saw 
(56) cut these ends, being care- 
ful to keep on the outside of the line (148). The work 
may be held on the bench-hook, as shown by Fig. 167. 



1 

i 
I 

< 





PLAN 
-9i-'— 






__:^ — 


■^,~- 




—^ ^=5=- _^r- 


"X 


~*^^ 


■^^^ 


^^ 


-^r— — ^-^^ -3-' 


1 












"ir~"'-^^ 


^--^ 


-^""^ 


~~— -^-~«, 


3f 


zr^::;^ 


^I^"^ 


-. ^^"^^-^ 




1 


/ ^^ 


,-- 


^^'- 














jr 



ELEVATION 



92 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



^ 



In starting the cut, the saw may be made to act across the 
angle of the work in the direction of the Hne ab, but should 
gradually be brought to the position shown, its motion being 
parallel to the face of the work, and its stroke long enough to 
bring every tooth into action. The position of the saw in Fig. 
167, together with the dotted outline, shows a proper range of 
movement. 

/ 

y 



The ends, when sawed, should be square with the work- 
ing-face and working-edge. If the cut is a poor one, a 
second may be taken by removing just enough material to 
hold the saw ; if it is only a little " out," it will be best, in 
this case, to pass the error for a time. One end of each hav- 
ing been squared, the pieces may now be brought to length. 
On one of the two pieces which are to form the ends of the 
box, lay off and scribe a line 4" from the squared end. Meas- 
ure the second end piece by the first to insure the same length 
for both, whether the measurement is just 4" or not. Next, on 
one of the two side pieces, 9^^'' from the squared end, scribe a 
line for sawing and, using the first piece as a measure, lay off a 
similar line on the second side piece and also on the bottom 
piece. All the pieces having been thus lined, they may be cut 
with the back-saw, after which all but the bottom piece will be 
of the dimensions required. 

148. Sawing "outside of the line" may be illustrated as fol- 
lows : if two lines are made on a piece of work just 12" apart, 
and the portion between cut out by sawing exactly on the lines, 



BENCH WORK. 



93 



it is obvious that the piece will be less than 12" long by half 
the width of the saw kerf at each end, or, adding the two de- 
ficiencies, by the width of one kerf, ^" or more. 
The appearance of an end when cut outside of a "^^^'^^^ 
line will be that shown by Fig. 168. The smooth ^^^^S 
line along the upper surface, represents the cut 
made by the scriber in lining the material ] the rest shows the 
work of the saw. 

149. Wailing (254-256). — The side and end pieces are to 
be nailed, as shown by Fig. 169, three 6-penny casing nails 
being used at each angle. When brought together, the pieces 
must be flush — pretty nearly right will not do. 

Nails, when seen in a certain position, appear equal in width 
throughout their length. A, Fig. 170; while a view at right 
angles to the first, shows them wedge-shaped, B, Fig. 1 70. In 



Fig. 169 



^WORKING FACE 



ITig.irO 
B 



A 



PLAN. 



WORKING EDGE 




R 



-^a^ -^6^ 



ELEVATION. 



starting a nail, the line represented by a must be placed across 
the grain of the wood, so that the point will cut the fibers 
which are displaced. If the line b is placed across the grain, 
a few only of the fibers will be severed, and the others will be 
simply pressed apart by the inclined sides of the nail, an action 
which is quite likely to split the work. 



94 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



150. Hammer Marks on the work must be avoided. One 
who is skilled in the use of a hammer, can drive a nail slightly 
below the surface of the work without leaving a scar ; but it is 
better to stop driving before the hammer head touches the 
work than to risk damage. 



151. Setting Nails. 



iTig.iri 




— When the nail has been driven as 
nearly "home" as possible, "set" it 
until the head is at least y^g-'' below the 
surface of the work. In applying the 
set, rest the little finger of the left hand 
on the work, as shown by Fig. 171, and 
press the set firmly against it; there 
will then be no trouble in keeping the 
set on the head of the nail. 



152. Withdrawing Nails. — It sometimes happens that a 
nail, when partially driven, is found to be tending in a wrong 
direction, in which case it must be withdrawn. If the hammer, 
when used for this purpose, is allowed to get into the position 
shown by Fig. 172, it will mar the work, the nail is likely to 
splinter the wood around the hole in coming out, and an 
unnecessary amount of force on the hammer handle is required 
to draw it. A better way is to keep the hammer from contact 
with the work by a block of wood, as a, Fig. 173. The block- 



3Eig.-i:rs 



iTig.irs 





ing should be increased in thickness as the nail is withdrawn. 
If the work has been well done, the nail will not be bent 



BENCH WORK. 



95 



Never attempt to start a nail in a hole from which one has 
been withdrawn. The second nail will either follow the first 
or, prevented from doing this, will take an opposite com'se no 
nearer right. 



153. Fastening the Box Bottom. — The side and end pieces 
of a box, when nailed together, may not be exactly rectangular, 
although each piece has the required length, and the fastening 
cannot be depended on to retain them with certainty in any 
given form. But when the bottom piece is added, all parts be- 
come fixed. It is, therefore, important that the rest of the box 
be in proper form when the bottom is nailed. 

The bottom piece has been cut the same length as the side 
pieces, and it has a working-edge with which both ends are 
square ; it is a littl^ wider than is necessary, but this can be 
made right in finishing the box. 

Place the bottom piece 
with the working-face inside, 
and the working- edge even 
with the outside edge of one 
of the side pieces, as shown 
by Fig. 174, and drive the 
nails a. Now since the angles 
b are right angles, the end pieces of the box, in order to be 
square with the side, to which the bottom is already nailed, 
must agree wdth the ends of the bottom piece. If they do not 
agree, but slip past, as shown by Fig. 1 74, slight pressure will 
spring them to place, after which nails may be driven at the 
points c. 

The nails in the bottom of a box must be so placed as to 
avoid those which hold the sides to the ends. No nail can be 
driven at the comers d. 

Finishing the box, — With the smooth-plane take a light cut 
all over the outside, keeping the sides and ends square with the 




96 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



bottom and with each other. The ends of the box, where the 
end grain of the bottom and side pieces is encountered, present 
the most difficulty. 

154. In planing end grain, the cutting edge must be sharp 
and set to take a fine shaving. If only a little material is to 
be taken off, the movement of the plane should be so limited 
that the cutting edge will not extend beyond the work, two 
cuts being taken in opposite directions, as indicated by A and 
B, Fig. 175. The motion of the plane in both directions. 



Fig. irs 



T^is.1'76 








ceases near C If much is to be removed, and it seems best 
to carry the plane the entire length of the surface, a bevel may 
be made which will allow the cutting edge of the plane to leave 
the work gradually, and at a little distance from the edge, as 
shown by Fig. 176, or a piece of waste material may be fixed 
with it in the vise as shown by Fig. 179. 

EXERCISE No. 6. — Bench-Hook (12). 

The stock required is if'^ X 2f" X 16" from Exercise No. 4. 
It is shown with the necessary lining by Fig. 177, in which 
figure the Plan, face A, represents the working- face, and the 
Elevation, face B, the working-edge. The finished piece is 
shown by Fig. 178. 

155. Lay off the fines ab and cd on face B, Fig. 177. Pro- 
ject ab across face A, as shown by ae, and project cd across 



BENCH WORK. 



97 



face C (not shown), and from these, project on face D lines 
similar to ab and cd^ which are already located on B, Lo- 
cate the point / on lines ab and cd^ and also on the similar lines 
of the opposite face Z>, measuring in each case from the work- 



Scale I^= \' 



.^1- 



A^ 



PLAN (FACE A.) 




ELEVATION (FACE B.) 






'B 



Fig. IT'S 
Scale, 1>^'=I^ 




ELEVATION 



ing-face A, as indicated by the dimensions given. By use of a 
straight-edge, draw ij and ik^ and similar lines on the opposite 
face. 

Cut along the hues ij and ik with the rip-saw. There are 
two ways of starting the saw when the material, as at k^ is not 
sufficient to hold the blade. First, a saw cut may be made 
along the line cq^ and the triangle cqk chiseled out, giving a flat 
surface, cq^ on which to begin ; secondly, a block of wood of 
the same breadth with the work may be fastened in the vise 



98 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD, 



JErig.irO 

o 7c 



with the latter, as shown by Fig. 179, thus, in effect, extending 
the surface ok. In the case of the Hne 
I'k, the second plan is preferable. The 
block A should bear well upon the work 
B dXk. 

The lines ij and ik having been sawed, 
cut di and ai with the back- saw. With 
the chisel produce the bevels repre- 
sented by mn and op. Bore the hole 
-/?, Fig. 178, and the piece is fin- 
ished. 




156. With reference to R^ it may be said that while an auger- 
bit (89) will cut smoothly when entirely within the material, it 
is sure to splinter when coming out on the face opposite the 
starting point. 

To prevent this, the bit may be used from one side until its 
spur appears on the opposite side, and then withdrawn, and 
started in the opposite direction in the hole left by the spur ; 

or the work may be held firmly to 
another block, as shown by Fig. 180, 
and the bit allowed to pass into the 
block as though the two were one 
piece. 

An auger-bit should cut freely, and advance into the work 
without much pushing on the brace ; if it does not, it is in poor 
condition and should be sharpenedc 




EXERCISE No. 7. — Halved Splice (202-203). 

The stock required is if' X if X 16" from Exercise No. 4 ; 
it is shown with the necessary lining, by Fig. 181. The com- 
pleted piece is shown by Fig. 182. 



BENCH WORK. 



99 



??- 



if" the width of the 
piece), and from the 
working- face A, gauge 
a Hne from b on face 
B around the end, and 
back to b on face D ] 
also from line d on face 
B around the opposite 
end to line d on face 
D. These lines are 
shown on face B by 
fg and ij\ The joint 
is made by cutting out 
the rectangular pieces 
bhgf and ij7k. 



^ 



157. A and B, Fig. 181, were marked as working- faces 
when the piece was planed, and may be used as such in this 
exercise. Midway be- 
tween the two ends on 
face A, locate the line 
a, and from a locate b, 
c, d, and e. Produce 
each of these lines 
across all four faces of 
the piece. Set the 
gauge at if (half of 



)r 






&ipa__ 



^ 



;5«' 



158. In cutting a 
splice, both pieces are 
not taken from the same 
face, for the reason that the gauged line may 
not be exactly in the middle, and in that case n 
each of the remaining parts would be more 
than half or less than half the thickness of 
L.cfC. 



i^ 



^o 



aj 



3 

00 



o- 



Kb 



lOO 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the material, and their united thickness, when put together, 
as in Fig. 182, would be greater or less than the material else- 



Scale, 3=1^ 





ELEVATION. FaCG B. 

where. The pieces cut out, therefore, are from opposite faces. 
Then if the gauge line is not in the center of the piece, that is, 
if bhgf'i^ thicker than if Ik, the smaller piece will be taken out on 
one side, and the larger piece on the other ; and the sum of 
the two remaining parts when put together, as in Fig. 182, will 
be equal to the full size of the material. 

159. To cut the pieces, first run the rip-saw down the lines 
gf and ij ', next, with the back-saw, cut the Hues bf and IJ ) 

next the hues c and e, being care- 
ful in all of these cuts to keep the 
proper side of the line (148). Finally, 
cut on the line a, and try the pieces 
together as in Fig. 182. If the work 
has been well done, the joint will be 
good. If it is not good, the faults 
may be corrected. The cuts gf and 
ij\ if not quite to line, may be brought 
to it by using the chisel as shown by Fig. 147. To facili- 



WORKMANpf 




END ELEVATION. 



BENCH WORK. 



lOI 





c 


B'ig 


.184- 




^ 


-4\- 


--' 


— ~ " — 


^ 




"'^-Z 


'-■^4^~ 



tate the operation, make chamfers on each side from the 
line to the sawed surface, as shown by Fig. 183, to be used 
instead of the Hne. Such chamfers present a twofold advan- 
tage I they are both visible from the same point, and they pre- 
vent splintering on the side on which the chisel comes out. 
The fitting on the line a^, Fig. 182, having been finished, sup- 
pose that the heading-joint ac fits, but 
that dd does not ; or suppose that 
neither fits properly, as shown by Fig. 
184. If the discrepancy is not great, d 

the joint may be corrected by use of the chisel, or it may be 
sawed to a fit. 

160. ''To saw a Fit," the tw^o pieces should be clamped 
together, or held by hand in the position shown by Fig. 184, 
and the joint at c sawed into. This will make c at least as 
wide as the saw kerf. Without changing the relative position 
of the pieces, turn the work over and saw d, which will also 
become at least as wide as the saw kerf, and, consequently, 
equal to c in so far as the joints have been affected by the saw. 
If in each case the joint is close enough to hold the saw, the 
pieces after sawing will come together perfectly. If one saw- 
ing is insufiicient, the pieces may be brought together and 
sawed a second, and even a third time. 

This method of fitting mscybe widely appHed. 

When the joint is perfect, the pieces are to be nailed at each 

Fig.lSS 




end with 4-penny casing nails driven obliquely, or "toed," 
as illustrated by Fig. 185. While nailing, rest the pieces A 



I02 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



^/ 



pq i 



and B on the bench C, and, to retain them in position, 
c:)x allow one to bear on 

the block D^ which 
in turn is held by the 
bench-stop. The block 
protects the ends of the 
work, which would be 
mutilated by the bench- 
stop if they were placed 
in direct contact with 
it. 

i6i. Toeing Nails. 
— The advantage to be 
derived from toeing a 
nail lies in the fact that 
it always " draws " in 
the direction in which 
it is driven. If driven 
as shown by ^, Fig. 185, 
it will draw A upon 
B both in a horizontal 
and in a vertical direc- 
tion, and will thus in- 
sure good contact be- 
tween the parts of the 
joint. 

The nails having been 
driven and set, each of 
the four sides may be 
given a final smooth- 
ing by a stroke of the 
plane. 




BENCH WORK. 



103 



EXERCISE No. 8. — Splayed Splice. 

The stock required is if'x if'X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
the necessary Hnes are shown by Fig. 186. The finished piece 
is represented by Fig. 187. 



ir'ig.18'7' 
Scale, Z"-=l' 




PLAN. 




K.-l|-^ 



IS 



^^=t 



f^i^ 



I 



END. 



ELEVATION. 

162. Let the faces A and B be the working- faces. Lay 
off on face A Hne a, and from a, the hnes d, c, d, <?,/, g, h, and 
/, and project these hnes on all four faces of the work. Set the 
bevel at an angle of 45 degrees ; with its beam on A, as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline, lay off on B hnes dj, bk, gf, and 
ik, and repeat these lines on face D, Connect points on both 
B and D, forming lines which on B appear as bj and ij\ The 
portions marked r are to be removed. "wi^^ iss 

163. To cut the joint, first use the 
rip-saw on the lines bJ and ij\ and 
afterwards the back- saw on the short 
oblique lines gf and bk. The back- 
saw can easily be started if, while the 
piece is held in the vise, a stroke is 
given in the direction a, Fig. 188, 
to carry the saw into the work a distance equal to the depth 




I04 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



of its teeth, after which it may be turned into the desired di- 
rection b. 

The splayed ends dj and ik may be cut with the work on 
the bench-hook, Fig. 189. By following the directions given in 
the previous exercise the joint may be finished, as shown by 
Fig. 187. 




EXERCISE No. 9. — Mortise-and-Tenon Joint (211-215). 

The stock required is if" X if" X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 
it is shown with the necessary lines by Fig. 190. The finished 
piece is shown by Fig. 191. 

164. Let A and B represent the two working- faces. From 
one end of the piece, on face A^ lay off line a^ and from ^, lay off 
lines ^, c, and d. Measure carefully the width of the piece on 
line d^ face A, and lay off one-half of the same oh each side of 
the line b, and through the points thus fixed make fines e and/. 
Project the lines ^, ^, and d on all four faces of the piece, and the 
lines e and f on B and D, the two faces adjoining A. Set the 
gauge at y\ and from face A, gauge on B the fine gh and a 
similar line on the opposite face D, Gauge the line ij and 
carry it around the end of the work to the line d on face D, 
Set another gauge at i-J" (|-" + f ", the width of the mortise and 
of the tenon), and gauge between the same lines as before, pro- 



BENCH WORK. 



105 



m 
r 
m 
< 
> 

H 
O 

z 



^ CQ 



;5^ ;^' 



H 






a 



-5- 



0^09 

r 



^ 



CO H 

•"- 



ducing g^/i\ z'f, etc. The mortise and the tenon are formed 
by cutting out the por- 
tions marked r. 

The method of "lay- 
ing oif " the width of the 
mortise and the tenon 
is to be especially ob- 
served. The distance 
between the two lines 
which define the width 
of the mortise, and those 
which define the width 
of the tenon, being 
equal to the difference 
in the setting of the two 
gauges, must be the 
same. The result, as 
far as the mortise and 
tenon are concerned, 
would not be different 
if the piece containing 
the mortise were twice 
as thick as that carrying 
the tenon. It is best to 
use two gauges to avoid 
the mistakes which might 
arise from changing a 
single one. Then, if it 
should be found neces- 
sary to use them after 
the first lining, precisely 
the same measurements 
will be obtained. This 
process can be short- 



s' 



m . 



J^ 



To" 



io6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



ened by using a mortise-gauge (33), which makes both lines at 
the same time. 

165. Cutting the Mortise. — It will be remembered that the 
lines which appear on face B, Fig. 190, have their counterparts 



ITig. 191 
Scale, 3=1 




rrm 



SIDE. 



on the opposite face D, To cut the mortise, select a chisel 
having a width as nearly as possible equal to the space between 
the gauge lines, and, beginning on face B, near the middle of 
the mortise, advance toward one end, as shown by Fig. 149. 
The end of the mortise having been reached, commence at the 
starting point and advance to the other end. Always loosen 
the chisel by a backward movement of the handle ; a movement 
in the opposite direction would injure the ends of the mortise. 
(See Fig. 149.) After the first few cuts, each deeper than the 
preceding, the chisel can easily be made to penetrate an inch 
or more, in pine or poplar. If the depth is equal to half the 
thickness of the work, no attention need be given to the chips. 
One side of the mortise having been cut in this manner, turn 
the work over and repeat the operation on face D, the chisel 



BENCH WORK. 



107 



being driven down to meet the opening made from the first side. 
After the cutting is finished, the chips may be dug out with a 
chisel or driven through by use of a wooden plug. Never try 
to drive them through by using the chisel with its cutting edge 
parallel to the grain, as such use 
is very likely to split the work. 
The chips having been re- 
moved, the truth of the mortise 
may be tested by using the flat 
side of the chisel as a straight- 
edge, as shown by Fig. 192. 
The sides of the finished mortise 
should agree with the chisel, as 

at a. Compare a with b. Remember that at least one-half the 
thickness of the line should remain on the work. 




trig. 193 



<C 



^ 



I 



PLAN. 



I 



166. The Tenon may next be cut by using the back-saw, 
both across the grain and with it. The sawing, if to line, leaves 
nothing to be done except the pointing of the tenon ; this is 
accomplished by a stroke of 
the chisel on each side, which 
makes it appear as shown by 
Fig. 193. The pointing is 
necQssary, because a square- 
ended, tight-fitting tenon, if 
driven to place, will splinter 
the sides of the mortise. The 
length of the tenon is suffi- 
cient to make it project be- 
yond the mortise a distance 
more than equal to the part 
pointed. After the fitting has been done, the projecting part is 
cut off. 

When both the mortise and tenon are finished, cut the piece 




ELEVATION. 



io8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



on the line c^ Fig. 190, and try the tenon in the mortise. It 
should enter at a light-driving fit. If the shoulders of the tenon 
do not make a good joint with the cheeks of the mortise, that 
is, if the joint at Sy Fig. 191, is not good, it may be sawed to a 
fit, as in the case of the splice. When all is satisfactory, bore 
the pin hole, insert the pin, cut off the projecting portion of the 
tenon and of the pin, and take a hght shaving from those sur- 
faces on which a plane may be used. 

167. To Make a Pin (249). — Select a piece of straight- 
grained material, in this case 4'^ or 5" long, and, by use of the 
chisel, reduce it in section to a square whose side is slightly 
greater than the diameter of the hole it is to fit. Then take off 
the corners, making it an octagon in section, and point one 

ITig. 194 




Fig. 195 



end. All this will be best accomplished if the piece is held 
by the bench-hook, as indicated by Fig. 194. 

168. Drawboring is a term appHed to a method of locating 

pin holes so as to make 
the pin draw the tenon 
into the mortise. Fig. 
195 shows the relative 
position of the holes be- 
fore the pin is inserted. 
It is evident that a 
tight-fitting pin will have 
a tendency to make the holes in the mortise and tenon 
coincide, and thus draw the two pieces together. The holes 




BENCH WORK. 



109 



may be located on the mortise and tenon by direct measure- 
ment ; or the cheeks of the mortise may be bored through and 



o4ee 



\ 



^ 



m 
r 
m 
< 
> 

o 






r 

I 

1. 



£ <— ^--^ 



^. ^. 



^ 






CO 

r 



3 



^ 



> 

z 



^ 



t^ 



^ 




o 



^ 



^ 



the tenon inserted, and marked 

by putting the bit into the hole /^^ 

already bored and forcing its 5 

point against the tenon. The ° 

tenon may then be withdrawn ^ 

and bored, the point of the bit being placed a little nearer the 

shoulder of the tenon than the mark. 



no 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



The practice of drawboring is not to be commended, and, 
if indulged in at all, great care and discretion must be exer- 
cised. In many cases, it puts a strain on the joint which is 
nearly equal to its maximum resistance, and but little strength 
is left to do the work for which the joint is made. Frequently, 
the mortise or tenon is split and rendered practically useless. 




PLAN. 



EXERCISE No. lo. 

Keyed Mortise- and-Tenon Joint (240-245). 

The stock required is if" X if X 16", from Exercise No. 4 ; 

it is shown with the ne- 
cessary lining by Fig. 
196. The finished piece 
is represented by Fig. 
197. 

169. The lining dif- 
fers from that of the 
preceding exercise in 
the following respects : 
the position of the Hne 
^ is changed as indi- 
cated by the dimension 
figures, and the position 
of lines e and /, which 
extend around the piece, 
is changed to corre- 
spond ; the mortise is 
made longer on face B 
than on face Z>, giv- 
ing one oblique end, 
face A, 




ELEVATION. 



as indicated by the dotted line 



BENCH WORK. Ill 

As regards the tenon, the Hne g is added at a distance from 
d equal to the thickness of the piece on the Hne ^, face A ; 
the point h is located on face A, and on the opposite face C, 
and the line g/i drawn on both faces. The mortise r' is to be 
cut as in the preceding exercise, and one end made oblique as 
indicated by the figure. 

To form the tenon the portions marked r are to be removed. 
First, beginning at g, cut along the obHque Hne gk ; then, be- 
ginning at k, the two lines kj ; and, finally, define the shoulders 
of the tenon by cutting on the line d. This order will save all 
the lines as long as *they are needed. 

170. A study of the finished piece will show that the tenon 
is inserted from the face Z>, and pushed over so that the splayed 
edge of the tenon, gk, bears on the splayed end of the mortise, 
/, leaving an open space at the other end of the mortise to be 
filled by the key. See Fig. 197. 

The key should be planed from a piece 5'' or 6" long. It 
should be uniform in width and nearly so in thickness, there 
being but a slight taper near the end which is to be driven in 
advance ; this end should be pointed like a tenon. It is best 
to drive the key from the inside in the direction indicated by 
the arrow. Fig. 197. 

The piece is to be finished in accordance with the appear- 
ance and dimensions shown by Fig. 197. 

EXERCISE No. II. — Plain Dovetail. 

The stock required is two pieces, each |-" X 3f " X 4", 
edges jointed paraHel, and one end squared. (The material 
may be worked up as one piece |-" x 3f " X 8", which, after 
being planed to width, may be cut in two with the back-saw, 
thus giving the squared ends required.) The working-faces 
used in preparing the material may also be used in laying off 
the lines. To avoid confusion one piece wiH be caHed X and 



112 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the other K Fig. 198 shows the Hning necessary for Xand ¥ 
respectively. The finished joint is shown by Fig. 199. 




ELEVATION (FACE A.) 



END. 






U- 



171. Lay off on all four faces of each piece, ^" from the 

squared end, the line a^. Fig. 198. 
Fasten X in the vise, and on its 
squared end lay off lines as gk, 
Fig. 198. Remove the piece from 
the vise, and with the bevel set 
^^ I to 4" (29), project on the 
faces A and C oblique lines as 
e/. The portions which are to be 
removed to form the mortises, are 
marked r. Put the piece in the 
vise again, and with the back- saw 
cut down the oblique Hues as e/. 
With a chisel, used as in cutting 
an ordinary mortise, remove the 
material between the hues. If 
preferred, part of it can be re- 
moved by boring a hole as indi- 
cated by the dotted outline. The 
hole will make the chiseling easier, 
but in so small a piece of work it is doubtful whether there is 
anything gained. The piece X having been finished, fasten ¥ 
in the vise, working-end up and working-face outward. Place 
the working- face of X on the working-end of V, as shown by 
Fig. 200, taking care that the line ad on X is in the same line 
with the working- face of K Holding the work in this position, 
and guided by the mortises in X, scribe on the end of Y the 
oblique lines as gk. Fig. 198. Remove Y from the vise, and 
with the beam of the square on the working-end, project to ad 
Hues as ef from the extremities of the oblique lines just made. 
The portions marked r and / are to be removed to form the 



4 



^- 



ELEVATION (FACE C.) 



BENCH WORK. 



"3 




ELEVATION (B:) 



"pins." Those on the outside marked r^ may be removed 
entirely with the saw; those on the inside (r), partly with the 
chisel, as in the case of the mortises in the piece X, 

172. The joint ought to go together by light driving, and 

be perfectly square on 
the inside between 
the working-faces. If 
it is found to be satis- 
factory, take it apart, 
apply a light coating 
of glue, and drive to- 
gether again. When 
the glue is hard, the 
joint may be smoothed and squared, and 
the ends of the pieces cut to the dimen- 
sions show^n in Fig. 199. 

173, It will be seen that one part of 
the joint is made, and the second part is 
then made to fit the first; hence, the 
proportions of the first part need not be 
determined with great exactness. The skilled 
bench-worker usually proceeds as follows : on 
the piece X (if there are several pieces, X, he 
treats them all at the same time) he lays off 
the lines ab and cross-lines as gh, the latter 
without measuring, and then saws obHquely 
without the use of lines as ef] on Y he lays off 
the lines ab and obhque lines as gh, and saws without making 
lines as ef. In this way the joint is soon made, and, al- 
though not perfectly symmetrical, it may be well-formed and 
well-fitted. 




ELEVATION (A.) 



Fig. 200 




WORKING FACE-^ 



114 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Fig, 301 
Scale, 8'-= l' 



EXERCISE No. 12. — Lap, or Drawer, Dovetail. 

The stock required is one piece -|-" X 3^ X 4" and one 

piece i" X 3f '' X 4'', 
edges jointed parallel 
and one end of each 
squared. The finished 
piece is shown by Fig. 
201. It will be seen 
that the piece X does 
not extend across the 
full thickness of the 
piece Y, and, consequently, the end grain 
does not ap- 
pear in Eleva- 
tion B, Fig. 
201. 




ELEVATION (FACE B.) 




:E"ig. SOS 

Scale,/ 8 — 1' 


1 I 


4o 

4 





ELEVATION (FACE A.) I74* O^ "^J 



Fig. 202, scribe the line a^, ^" 
(the thickness of X) from the 
working- end, and continue it 
across the working-edges. Set a 
gauge at f ", and from the work- 
ing-face A gauge the line cd on 
the working- end, and extend it on 
the edges until it meets the ex- 
tended hne al^, as shown by face 
D, Fig. 202. From the working- 
end of X, with the same gauge, 
make the Hne ad on the two faces 
A and C, Produce the remaining 
lines on X, cut the mortises, and 
lay off V by X, as in the last 
exercise. 



PLAN (FACE D.)« 


a 






r 


^— -3f- 


— 


r 


Y 


r 




~r~ 



^C 



ELEVATION (FACE A.) 




ELEVATION (FACE A.) 



BENCH WORK. 



115 



In cutting out around the pins (F), the dehcacy of the work 
does not demand the most dehcate chisel, but one as large as 
Is convenient should be used. Finish the joint to the dimen- 
sions given by Fig. 201. 




I 



EXERCISE No. 13. — Blind Dovetail. 

The stock required 

is two pieces, each 

i" X si" X 4" edges 

jointed parallel and 

one end squared. The 

finished joint is shown 

by Fig. 203. The 

ELEVATION (FACE B.) dovetail is whoUy with- 

in the square adcd, and, consequently, no 

end grain shows on any face. 

175. With the square, lay off on the 
_ working-faces and two edges of each piece 
of material. Fig. 204, the lines ^a, ai, and 
ELEVATION (FACE A.) cd, dk^ aud from the working-face A gauge 
on the ends of each piece the line ef, 

Eig, SOS 




I 



ITig. 204 



Scale, 8 = 1 



5 ,6- 



^^ ^ -^ Scale. Z'^i 
PLAN (FACE DJ 



d .a 



D ^ 
ajeb 



Uil 






d a> 

PLAN.- 



d a. 



^ 



ELEVATION (FACE A.') 



ELEVATION-. 



ii6 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Scale,, 3— j' 



Cut both pieces as shown by Fig. 205. Taking one of the 
pieces, which will be called X, space ^ and lay off on the reduced 
end surface lines as op, Fig. 206, using the try-square blade 
as indicated by the dotted outHne. Next, produce oblique 

lines as gh, shown in the same 
figure, and cut the mortises 
marked r. 

With Y in the vise apply X, 
in which the mortises have al- 
ready been cut, as shown by 
Fig. 207, so that points may be 
located along the exterior angle 
e^ of Y, corresponding to the 
openings in X. Project these 
points (shown on line e^f, Fig. 



a-JK\'b 



.0 



ELEVATION (FACE Aj 



END. 



r 

r 
F 

r 



df a' g r e'j >' 



208) from the exterior angle e', 
to the interior angle ^\ Fig. 
207. Next apply X to Y, as 
shown by Fig. 209 ; from this 
position the points shown' on 
the line a'i\ Fig. 208, can be 
secured along the angle a\ 
These points, when connected, 
will give lines as g/i, F, Fig. 206. 
From these lines, project on the 
working-face lines as ij, down 
to the line d'k\ Cut out the 
portions marked r, and the dovetail is finished. It now re- 
mains to make a miter-joint between the two rectangular pro- 
jections on X and K Set the bevel at a miter (an angle of 45 



A: 



ELEVATION CfACE A,) 



jpni' 



END. 



1 No dimensions are given for locating the lines similar to opy X, Fig. 
206. They can be found by measuring the drawing, which, as indicated by 
the scale, is one-fourth the size of the piece it represents. 



BENCH WORK. 



117 



degrees) and scribe the dotted line e, Fig. 205, on each piece ; 
then cut to Hne with a chisel. When the joint has been fitted, 
glue, and finish to dimensions. 



irig._Q08 




4' e'h' 








' J 


/; 


nf 



"Fig. Q09 
a 



1 d 



X 



d' 



Y 



Fig. 210 



\ 



•176. If, instead of cutting out the first and last space of Y, 
one-half only is cut out, as shown by Fig. 210, 
the dividing hne being on a miter, and, if the 
outside portions of X, m, m, Fig. 206, are cut <^ 
away to a miter to correspond, the joint will 
appear as a plain miter -joint, instead of that shown by 
Fig. 203. 



EXERCISE No. 14. — Frame and Panel (246-248). 

177. Fig. 211 shows a small panel door. The frame is made 
up of stiles and rails, which are fastened together by mortise-and- 
tenon joints ; the spaces within the frame are filled by panels. 
The lower panel is simply a thin board screwed to the back of 
the frame. The upper panel is composed of narrow strips, which 
are inserted in a groove made in the frame for their reception. 
The front of the frame, around the lower panel, is chamfered, 
and around the upper panel is beaded. It is the purpose of 
this exercise to construct that portion of the door included 
within the rectangle abdc. 



ii8 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed to dimen- 



^ P ANEL 



Fig. S18 

Scale, 3*^=1' 





ELEVAJIOW-. 



sions as follows : for the stile, 
If" X 21" X 9'' ; for the rail, 
li" X 4'' X 61-" ; and for the 
panel ^" X 5" X si". The 
finished work is shown by 
Fig. 212. 




ELEV.ATION. 



178. The mortise-and-tenon joint between the stile and rail, 
both in the size and position of its parts, is shown by Fig. 213. 
The width of the mortise and the tenon should be equal to the 
width of the f " chisel.^ It will be noticed that the lines are 
so placed as to make the stile extend beyond the lower edge of 
the rail. This extension, or "horn," as it is called, is for the 



1 The nominal width of a chisel does not always agree with its actual 
width. 



BENCH WORK. 



119 



purpose of re-enforcing the end of the mortise during the fit- 
ting, — a recourse which must always be had when the mortise 
in the finished work closely approaches the end of the material. 
After all the jointing has been done, the horns may be cut off. 
Having laid off the necessary lines for cutting the mortise and 
the tenon, very light lines, as cd and c^d\ Fig. 213, should be 
made on both stile and rail to guide in cutting the chamfers. 



.-61' - 






SIDE OF RAIL. 



"Fig. 2T3 
Scale, 3=r 



-2f— ^-*i^ 




SIDE OF STILE. 



EDGE A OF STILE. 



Cut and fit the mortise and tenon, and then make both 
chamfers, as shown in the finished piece. Fig. 212. 

179. Short chamfers (222, 223) like these are best cut by 
use of the chisel, a spokeshave sometimes being used in finishing. 

Long chamfers may be cut rapidly by the drawing-knife, 
which may be followed by the smooth-plane. 

180. Before putting the joint together, enlarge the outside 
end of each mortise, as shown by a and ^, Fig. 213, to make 
room for the wedges <r, c, which, after the joint has been 



I20 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

driven together, are to be dipped in glue and driven as 
indicated. This method of wedging forms a very strong 
joint (250, 251). 

181. Round the edge of the panel on the bottom and side, 
as shown by a, Fig. 212, and fasten it to the back of the 
frame by two i" No. 8 screws — one in the rail, and one, ^, 
in the stile (258) . 

182. In inserting screws, the outside piece (in this case the 
panel) must be bored for each screw. The hole should be 
sufficiently large to allow the screw to pass through easily ; and, 
if the wood is hard, it must be enlarged at the top, or " coun- 
terbored," to receive the head of the screw. The piece in 
which the screw holds (in this case the frame), if of soft wood, 
need not be bored unless there is danger that it may split, in 
which case a hole should be made, in diameter about two-thirds 
that of the screw. The necessity for a hole in hard wood 
depends largely on the proportions of the screw. A short, 
large-wired screw will stand almost any service, while a long 
slender one will frequently be twisted or broken under the 
strain necessary to drive it into wood which is only moder- 
ately hard. 

Judgment must determine when the screw is driven suf- 
ficiently. The head must bed well into the wood ; but 
there is danger that it may be forced so far as to " strip '^ 
the thread, and that, as a consequence, the screw will not 
hold (96,98). 

Never allow the screw-driver to slip from the slot of the 
screw while the latter is being driven. 

183. Brad-awls are useful in preparing the way for small 
screws. The cutting edge should always be placed across the 
grain so that the fibers will be cut, and not simply pressed apart 
to close up again when the tool is withdrawn. The difference 



BENCH WORK. 



121 



in effect may be seen by comparing, Fig. 214, A, which shows 
a proper action, with B, 

Fig. 314 



I 



EXERCISE No. 15. — Paneling. 

This exercise consists in making that portion of the panel 
door, Fig. 211, included within the rectangle ef. 



Fig. 21s 

Scale, a' 1' 







\i 



122 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Three pieces of stock are required, each jointed to dimen- 
sions as follows : stile i^" X 2^" X 9"; rail i^'' X 2i^" x 6^" ; 
panel strip ^" X if X 18''. The completed exercise is shown 
by Fig. 215. 

184. In considering the joint between the stile and rail as 
shown by Fig. 216, three new features will be observed; the 
groove, or " plow," which is to receive the panel, as shown at 
a, Fig. 215 ; the beads /,/; and the mitered corner cd, which 
allows the parts to be plowed and beaded as shown, without 
affecting the mortise-and-tenon joint. 

Follow the dimensions, and Hne for the mortise and tenon as 
in the preceding exercises, supposing the rail to be of the form 
indicated by the dotted outline d'jc^ Fig. 216, and the stile to 
be of the form indicated by e/d. This done, add the lines ec, 

Fig. 316 
Scale* s'-^t' 

--1-4-1 



^H 



-2i' i,-| 

I 







■i" 






4- 

b 


h 
4 

a 


h 





c' 


1 


^ ± — 3^ 


'tLi 


V" 


-—t--r>-— 



i d' 



J, 


1 ^^ . 


d 


1 a 1 '^ 


\ 


1 ^^». 1 



ELEVATION. 



SIDE. 



cd, and c^d', by means of gauge and bevel. Cut the mortise 
and the tenon, after which plow the groove a. 



BENCH WORK. 



123 



185. No special direction can be given for using the plow 
(85), except that it is to be used from the working- edge ; but 
it will be safe to practice with it on a piece of waste material 
before applying it to the work. 




rtn 



156 



186. Next, the beads /,/, Fig. 215, are to be formed on the 
inside edge of both rail and stile, that is, along the edges 
marked b, Fig. 216. What has already been said regarding 
the use of the plow, may also be said of the beading-plane 

(84). 

The mitered corners are now to be formed by cutting with 
the back-saw to lines already made, and then the joint between 
stile and rail, fitted and wedged as 
in Exercise No. 14. 

The frame having been made 
ready, attention may be given to 
the panel. The panel strip, al- 
ready jointed, must be "matched" 
by forming the tongue b and the 
groove a, Fig. 217. This opera- 
tion brings into use the \^^ match- 
ing-planes (82), which should first 
be tried on a piece of waste ma- 
terial. The bead ^, Fig. 217, is 
to be made with a y^g-" beading- * "sjdeT ^ end. 

plane. 

Cut the panel strip into lengths suitable for forming the 
complete panel, Fig. 218, using either the bevel or the miter- 



Kig. SIS 

Scale, 3= 1'' 





V ^\. d 






o 






?- 




\V ^ ^^^V 




■i: 




CI ^^\^ \ 




L 



124 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



box in obtaining the angle of the ends. The fitting of the 
pieces one to another will be most easily done if they are cut 
in order, as a, b^ c, etc. 

187. In using the miter-box, Fig. 219, the work a, while 
resting on the bottom of the box, must be pressed against the 
side b, in which position, the saw, guided by the box as shown, 
will cut the piece at a miter. The opposite guide cc may be 
used in the same manner. By using ^the work will be cut off 




square. To hold the pieces of the panel together, and to fasten 
the panel to the frame, light brads may be inserted in the 
oblique ends of the panel strips shown at b, Fig. 215, or, 
what is, perhaps, better, glue may be used. If the door were 
complete, as shown by Fig. 211, the panel would have perfect 
support in the frame. 



PART III. 



ELEMENTS OF WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 

TIMBER.i 

1 88. " Timber is that portion of the woody material of trees 
which is used in carpentry and joinery." " If the trunks of 
timber-bearing trees are cut, they are found to be composed 
of concentric cyhndrical layers, whose cross- 
sections form rings, separated from each E^xg.sso 
other, and evidently quite distinct. These 
layers [Fig. 220] are formed, one each year, 
during the period of growth of the tree. 
They vary in thickness, in density, and in 
color, according to the rapidity of growth, 
the length of the season, and other cir- 
cumstances which may change from year to year. 

"The outer portion of the trunk is called the ' sap-ivood,^ and 
it is usually lighter in color, and less strong and dense than the 
interior portions, or heart-wood, 

" The circulation of sap through the sap-wood occurs during 
favorable weather. In winter it is supposed to cease, and this 
period of checked circulation causes the lines of demarkation 
between successive annual rings." 

1 Quotation marks under this heading refer to Thurston's " Materials of 
Engineering," Part I. 




126 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

"The heart- wood is nearly or quite impervious to sap, its 
vessels being closed up, and the wood is dense and hard." It 
is usually far more durable than sap-wood. 

" Different kinds of trees, and different individuals of the 
same species, have different proportions of sap-wood. The 
slower-growing trees usually contain the least." 

189. "* Felling' Timber should always, if possible, be prac- 
ticed at the period of maturity; if earher, the wood will not 
have acquired it greatest strength and density, and will con- 
tain too great a proportion of sap-wood ; if later, the wood 
will have become weakened by incipient decay. 

"The oak is said to reach maturity when about 100 years of 
age, and it should not be felled at less than 60. 

"Pine timber should be cut at from 70 to 100 years of age, 
and ash and elm, at from 50 to 100. 

" The season of the year best adapted to felling timber is 
either midwinter or midsummer. The months of July and 
August are often selected, as at those seasons the sound trees 
remain green, while the unsound trees are then turning yellow. 
Healthy trees then have tops in full foliage, and the bark is 
uniform in color, while unsound trees are irregularly covered 
with leaves of varying color, having a rougher, and often a 
loosened, bark, and decaying limbs." 

After felling, " the trunk should be immediately stripped of its 
bark, and, when heart-wood only is wanted, the sap-wood re- 
moved as soon as possible. The bark is often removed from 
trees in spring, and the felling deferred till autumn or winter. 
This is probably the best course to pursue, usually." 

190. "Seasoning Timber is simply driving out the sap from 
its pores by either natural or artificial means.. This should 
always be done as gradually as possible, otherwise the timber 
is liable to crack or ' check,' from irregular drying. 

" Natural or air seasoning gives the best results. The timber 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 12/ 

should in all cases be squared as soon as cut, and all large logs 
should be halved, or even quartered. It is then piled in the 
seasoning yard in such a manner as to be protected as far as 
possible from the sun and rain. It should be placed where the 
air may circulate freely on all sides, not only of the pile, but of 
each log ; bad ventilation is sure to cause rot. After remain- 
ing thus for some months, the logs may be cut into smaller 
joists, if needed in such form, or into planks and boards, and 
again piled for further seasoning. 

" For heavy work two years, and for lighter work, four years, 
is sufficient time for seasoning boards ; but timber is rarely 
overseasoned." 

Artificial methods of seasoning by means of high tempera- 
ture, are much more rapid in operation than the natural method 
just described. It is not impossible, in this manner, to season 
one-inch material in two days. 

igi. Shrinkage in timber occurs whenever it loses moisture. 

In the process of seasoning, shrinkage may reduce the width 
and thickness of a timber fully "eight per cent," but it has little 
effect on its length. Wood cannot be so well seasoned as not 
to shrink whenever the surrounding dryness is increased. It 
also has a tendency to shrink after having its surface removed, 
by a plane, for example. This is due to the reopening of the 
pores, which in the fibers of the old surface had become closed 
by contraction ; in this way new passages are afforded for the 
" escape of moisture. 

192. Swelling occurs whenever the timber absorbs moisture. 
Most woods give up moisture more readily than they receive 
it, and, therefore, a timber will not swell so much when trans- 
ferred from a dry atmosphere to a moist one, as a similar timber 
will shrink when transferred from a moist atmosphere to a dry 
one, the difference in the atmospheric conditions being the 
same. A slight change, however, in the amount of surrounding 



128 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



moisture is sufficient to produce a perceptible change in the 
dimensions of a piece of wood. As a rule, the softer a wood is, 
the more readily it shrinks and swells. 

193. Warping in wood is a change of form resulting from 
unequal shrinkage or swelling. 

Suppose Fig. 220 to represent the end of a log. It will be 
seen that, besides the lines defining the annual ring layers, there 
are others extending from the center in all directions ; these 
are known to the botanist as medullary rays, and sometimes 
to the carpenter as silver rays. In some woods, they are very 
clearly defined; in others, they are hardly discernible. The 
medullary rays serve to bind together the annual ring layers, 
and are not very much shortened by shrinkage. In seasoning, 
the outer ends draw together, as at A and B, Fig. 221, and 



inig. Qsa 



l^^ig.SSS 



ITig.SSS 






produce ragged cracks, which sometimes extend from the ex- 
terior to the heant-wood, as shown. 

194. If a log is cut longitudinally into five pieces, the mid- 
dle piece will, in shrinking (by the drawing together of the 
medullary rays), become thinner at the edges than at the 
center, as shown by Fig. 222. The other four pieces will 
warp as shown, the surface of each piece, which in the log was 
nearest the center, becoming the convex side after shrinking. 

The shrinkage of a square joist will vary according to its 
position in the log relative to the heart. (See Fig. 223.) Thus, 
it will be seen that, in the cross-section of a timber, changes 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I29 

resulting from shrinkage can be foretold whenever the character 
of the end grain can be determined. 

195. Timbers also warp in the direction of their length. 
When not due to the subjection of one part to dryness or 
dampness to the exclusion of other parts, this can be traced to 
unevenness in the grain, which exposes a greater number of 
fiber ends in one part of a surface than another. The more 
fiber ends there are on a surface, the more readily moisture will 
pass into or out of the wood, and the more pronounced will be 
the local shrinking or swelHng, 

and consequent warping. For *" ^ 

example, suppose Fig. 224 to '^.^^^^^ 
represent the edge of a board ^"^^^""^^^ 
having the grain as shown. ^ ^ 

Moisture will escape more readily from the surfaces marked A 
and A^ than from those marked B and B\ The contraction 
of the surfaces A and A\ will force the board into the shape 
shown by the dotted line. 

The most fruitful cause of warping, however, is unequal 
exposure. One side of a board may be exposed to the sun 
while the other is protected from it ; the side exposed will be 
found concave, both in length and breadth. Heat from a stove 
or dampness from the ground are common causes of warping. 

If a board newly planed on all its faces, is left flat on the 
bench, it will after a time be found concave in its upper sur- 
face, a result due to the greater exposure of the upper surface 
as compared with the lower, which remained in contact with 
the bench. A piece having reasonably straight grain, and 
which has been planed all over, should be left on its edge or 
end. Pieces of irregular shape, that are required to be made 
to form accurately, are best when cut roughly almost to the 
required dimensions, and allowed ample time to shrink and 
warp before being finished exactly to size. 



130 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



CARPENTRY.^ 



196. It is the work of the carpenter to raise and inclose the 
' frame of a building, to construct its floors and roofs, and to 

complete all parts which give stabiHty to the structure ; the 
joiner makes the doors and windows, erects the stairs, and pro- 
vides such interior woodwork as will finish the building as a 
habitation. A single mechanic may perform almost every kind 
of work required in the construction of a building, thus elimi- 
nating this distinction of trades ; but for convenience in classi- 
fication, we may imagine the work of the carpenter and that 
of the joiner to be quite distinct. 

It will be understood that neither carpentry nor joinery 
is confined to house-building. While all bencji work may 
properly be classed as joinery, it involves forms and principles 
that are the logical outgrowth of carpentry. For this reason, 
in the following consideration of joints, there are presented, 
first, those belonging to carpentry, which will include such as 
are used in uniting timbers, as in a frame for a building; and, 
secondly, those belonging to joinery, which will include such as 
are used in joining small planks or boards. This classification 
cannot be rigidly adhered to, but it will serve the purpose of 
the following pages. 

197. Any two timbers may be united in the direction of 
their length, or they may be united at an angle. 

Timbers united in the direction of their length are usually 



1 • 1 E 



subject to compressional strain, which has a tendency to reduce 
their length, as indicated by Fig. 225 ; or tensional strain, 

1 Tredgold's " Carpentry," and " Notes on Building Construction " pub- 
lished by Rivingtons, have furnished many of the facts presented under 
Carpentry and under Joinery. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



131 



which has a tendency to increase their length, Fig. 226; or 
cross-strain, which has a tendency to bend them, Fig. 227; 
or to two of these strains at the same time. 

198. A Timber subjected to cross-strain must always bend. 

The fibers forming that surface which is convex or has a 
tendency to become so (as the lower surface, A, Fig. 227) 
will be subject to tensional strain, while the fibers forming 
the opposite surface will be brought under compressional 
strain. This is shown by Fig. 228, A representing a straight 



c 



Fig.SSS 




B 



timber, and B the same timber bent. It follows, then, that 
somewhere between the compressed surface and the ex- 
tended surface there will be a line which is subject to neither 
compressional nor tensional strain ; such a line is called the 
neutral axis of a timber, and will be located with sufficient 
accuracy for the purposes of this work, if drawn midway be- 
tween the upper and lower surfaces, as shown by the dotted 
line CD, Fig. 228. 

In the timber that has been forced into a curved form. Fig. 
228, the fibers within the neutral axis are under no strain ex- 
cepting that required to hold the compressed portion to the 
extended portion ; but the conditions are found to change 
rapidly as the examination extends to fibers more and more 
remote from this axis. In other words, the strength of such 
a timber increases rapidly as its depth increases. For example, 
if Fig. 227 represents a 2" x 4" timber (2" wide and 4" deep) 
supported at B, B, and capable of sustaining 200 pounds at C, 



132 BENCH WORK IN WOODo 

it can be shown that, if the depth is doubled, leaving the width 
the same, by substituting a 2" x 8" timber, it will sustain four 
times the original load, or 800 pounds ; while if the width is 
doubled, leaving the depth the same, by substituting a 4" x 4'' 
timber, it will sustain only twice the original load, or 400 
pounds. The law is that the strength of timbers subject to 
cross- strain, varies as the width, and as the square of the 
depth.i 

199. Rankine has given five principles to be observed in 
designing joints and fastenings. They are as follows : — 

1. "To cut the joints and arrange the fastenings so as to 
weaken the pieces of timber that they connect as little as pos- 
sible." 

2. "To place each abutting surface in a joint as nearly as 
possible perpendicular to the pressure which it has to transmit." 

3. "To proportion the area of each surface to the pressure 
which it has to bear, so that the timber may be safe against 
injury under the heaviest load which occurs in practice, and 
to form and fit every pair of such surfaces accurately, in order 
to distribute the stress uniformly." 

4. "To proportion the fastenings so that they may be of 
equal strength with the pieces which they connect." 

5. "To place the fastenings in each piece of timber, so that 
there shall be sufiicient resistance to the giving way of the joint 
by the fastenings shearing or crushing their way through the 
timber." 

Complicated forms of joints are likely to violate Rule 3. 

1 By what has been given, it will be seen that in any body of material 
the portions most affected in resisting cross-strain are those lying near the 
upper and lower surfaces, Fig. 227. In view of this fact, parts that are to 
receive a cross-strain, especially if of iron, are, in important structures, 
formed to present a large amount of material near these surfaces. A rail- 
road rail or an I-beam are simple illustrations; a bridge truss is an elabo- 
ration of this principle. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION, 133 

Joints connecting Timbers in the Direction of their 

Length. 

200. A Lapped Joint, shown by Fig. 229, fastened either by 
straps A or bolts B^ is clumsy, but very strong. 

201. A Fished Joint in its simplest form is shown by Fig. 
230, and is so called because of the two pieces marked A called 
''fish-pieces " or "fish-plates,^^ 

ABA 



i 



1 




Fish-pieces may be of either wood or iron, and may be 
employed to form the fished joint shown in Fig. 230, or applied 
to more comphcated joints to increase their strength. 

When subject to compressional strain, a fished joint should 
have four plates, one on each face. When subject to tensional 
strain, the plates, if of iron, may be indented. A, Fig. 231 ; or, 
if of hard wood, the ends may be tabled, B, Fig. 231, or keys 
inserted as shown by A and B, Fig. 232. Other things being 

Fig. ^31 Fig.SSS 




equal, if the number of keys is doubled, the thickness of each 
may be diminished one-half without reducing the strength of 
the joint, since the total amount of abutting surface will remain 
the same. 

Note. —The student should observe carefully the position of the lines 
in the following representations of joints, so that he may clearly see the 
reasons for the different methods of construction. He should first look for 
the abutting surfaces, and then note their relation to the rest of the joint. 



134 



BENCH WORK IN WOODo 



For cross-strain, the fish-pieces should be on the sides of the 
joint, as shown by Fig. 233. 

Fig.S33 



The bolts used for securing fish-pieces, or employed as fas- 
tenings for any joint, should be placed checker-wise, Fig. 233, 
so that no two will cut the same cross-section. 

Fished joints are often used in heavy construction. By a 
suitable proportion of parts, the joint can be made almost as 
strong as the timbers it connects. 

202. Scarfed Joints are those in which the two timbers 
united are so cut and fitted as to make the joint uniform in 
size with the timbers. In determining the form of any scarf, 
the principles already given (199) should be adhered to as 
closely as possible. Some scarfs by their form are self-sustain- 
ing, but, compared with the timbers they unite, are weak, and 
are seldom used unless strengthened by bolts, or by bolts and 
fish-pieces. 

203. A scarfed joint for resisting compression is shown in 
its simplest form by Fig. 234. When strengthened by bolts 
and fish-pieces, it forms an exceedingly good joint. 



TT-ig.ss^ 



IT-ig.ssS 









204. A scarfed joint for resisting tension is shown by Fig. 
235. The key A supplies the abutting surface to receive the 
strain tending to open the joint ; in thickness it is equal to 
one-third that of the timber. In practice this joint is not often 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



135 



employed without fish-pieces. Fig. 236 shows a modification 
of 23s, which will serve excellently for tensional strain. 



Fig. 236 



205. A scarfed Joint for resisting cross-strain is subject 
to compressional strain in its upper portion, and to tensional 
strain in its lower portion (198), and must, therefore, embody 
forms adapted to resisting both, as shown by Fig. 237. A 
single fish- piece is usually added to the lower side of the joint. 

ITig. S37 



206. A scarfed joint for resisting tension and compression 
may be made, as shown by Fig. 238 ; or, less complicated, as 
shown by Fig. 239 ; or, more secure, as shown by Fig. 240. 



Fig. 238 



Fig. 239 



^€^i 






207. A scarfed joint for resisting tension and cross-strain 
is sometimes made as illustrated by Fig. 241, but this form is 



Fig. 240 



Fig. 241 



not so good as the one shown by Fig. 233, if in the latter case 
the fish-pieces are indented. 



136 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



Joints connecting Timbers at Right Angles. 

208. Halving, Fig. 242, forms a very simple joint, and when 
well fastened, a strong one. It is frequently employed. 

Beveled-halving, Fig. 243, is sometimes resorted to with the 
view of allowing the load imposed upon A in the direction of 
the arrow, to hold the joint together. Under ordinary circum- 
stances, this joint is likely to prove weak, because of a lack of 
material at the shoulder near the letter A, 



irig.s4r3 



TTig.Q^S 

H 



~B-^ 








ELEVATION, 



209. Notching. — In placing several timbers upon another 
which is to support them, in the manner represented by Fig. 
244, it is usually desired that the tops of the supported timbers 
be uniform in height. This would not be accomplished by 
simply placing them in a row, because timbers of the same 
nominal size vary in their breadth and depth. The ends of 
the deeper ones must therefore be cut or " notched,'' as shown 
by Fig. 244, to make them agree in depth with the lightest 
timber of all. Properly speaking, this is a preparation for the 
bearing of one timber on another, and not a joint ; but if the 
end of the supported timber is allowed to project, as repre- 
sented by Fig. 245, a true joint is made. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



137 



Double-notching requires a notch in both timbers, Fig. 246. 

Fig. Q4S 




210. Cogging is represented by Fig. 247. It has some 
advantage over notching in point of strength, inasmuch as the 
timber B has its full depth over its support. The '' cog " A 
makes the union between the two timbers, as a joint, quite as 
satisfactory as the double notch. 

If the surrounding conditions require it, the cog may be 
formed near one edge, instead of in the middle of the timber. 

211. Mortise-and-Tenon Joints. — A tenon is a projection 
made on the end of a timber to form part of a joint ; a mortise 
is an opening intended to receive a tenon. In Fig. 248, T is 





the tenon ; M^ the mortise ; R, the root of the tenon ; 6*, 6*, 
its shoulders ; and c, c, are sometimes called the abutting 
cheeks of the mortise. 

212. When a vertical timber meets a horizontal timber, 
the object of the joint is simply to prevent displacement ; and 
a small, short tenon, sometimes called a ^^stub tenon," is 
usually employed. In this case, the tenon should not reach 
the bottom of the mortise, but the strain should be taken by 



138 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the shoulders. Sometimes, instead of making a stub tenon, 
the whole end of one timber is let into another, and the first 
is then said to be "housed." 

213. When a horizontal timber meets a vertical timber, the 
joint mxay be formed as shown by Fig. 249, or made much 
stronger, if, in addition to the tenon, it is "blocked," Fig. 250, 
or housed as shown by Fig. 251. 



iilli 



iTig. sso 




214. When one horizontal timber meets another, it is a 
common practice, if the proportions of the pieces are favorable, 
to employ a double mortise and tenon, Fig. 252, A being 



ITig. SOI 



ill 






Fig. Q^S 



\^M 




ELEVATION. 



supported by B, This method cannot be recommended, how- 
ever, because B is very much weakened by the mortises. 
With reference to B only, the best place for the mortise is on 
the neutral axis (in the center of the timber) , while with refer- 
ence to A only, the tenon should be on its lower edge, that it 
may be re- enforced by all the material above it. If timbers 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



139 



of equal depth are thus joined, they will appear as shown by 
Fig. 253; but this combination, while strong, is not always 
practicable, because of surrounding conditions. ^ For this rea- 
son, both mortise and tenon are often placed in unfavorable 
positions, and the strength of the joint sacrificed. Sometimes 
the form shown by Fig. 254 is used, but this has little in its 



Fig.ssr 



irig.QS4r 




i 



favor, except the ease with which it is made. A better com- 
bination is shown by Fig. 255, which, although less perfect as a 
joint, may serve the purpose quite as well as Fig. 253 if the 
timber is long between supports. Tusk tenons are used to 
overcome the difficulties presented by the forms shown above 
when employed in heavy construction. This arrangement of 
surfaces. Fig. 256, allows the mortise to be in the center of the 
timber, and to be small ; and it also allows the tenon, by means 
of the tusk ZJ to present a low abutting surface on the sup- 
ported timber. Its strength and compactness fully compensate 
for the difficulty of fitting it. 



Fig.SSS 




Fig.S56 



H^EE^ 




Miscellaneous Joints. 

215. Oblique Mortises and Tenons may be used to join 
two timbers meeting each other at an obhque angle. Fig. 257 
shows a common form in which the abutting surface, repre- 
sented by the dotted line A^ is perpendicular to the cheeks of 



I40 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



the mortise, and the strain transmitted in the direction of the 
arrow, is divided between the surfaces represented by the 
dotted Hne A and the full line B. A bearing along the latter 
line becomes unreliable when the timbers shrink, or when, by 
the settling of connected parts, the surfaces change their rela- 
tive position. For this reason it is better to depend mainly on 
the line A^ which is less affected by the causes mentioned. To 
take the strain wholly, A should be at right angles to the length 
of the tenon-bearing timber, Fig. 258. This, however, w^hile 
apparently a well-formed joint, is not a strong one, for the 



ITig.SSS 




irig. SS9 



' j-^.l-'O^" — cfc7/&:^j:^ 




tenon, which is usually equal to but one-third the width of 
the timber, must alone receive the thrust. To relieve the tenon 
by increasing the area of the abutting surface, the end of A 
may be housed as shown by Fig. 259, or the joint may be 
strengthened by bolts or straps. 

The mortise for the joint shown by Fig. 258 is usually made 
of the outline abc, and the triangle a^bc is not filled. This is 
done because it is easier to cut down the line he than the line 
a!c. There seems to be no objection to this practice. 



Kig. 260 



i i 



Fig. a 61 



^^^^^^ 



S 




SIDE. 



216. A Bridle-Joint is represented by Fig. 260. It pos- 
sesses the advantage of having its parts so exposed that any 
inaccuracy in the fit is always apparent. An oblique form of 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION, 



141 



bridle-joint, Fig. 261, is certainly worthy of study. The width 
of the bridle, B^ Fig. 260, should not exceed one-fifth the 
width of the timber. 

217. A Tie- Joint is shown by Fig. 262. The timber ^ is 
prevented from falling away in the direction indicated by the 
arrow, by the insertion of the tie B. The joint illustrated by 
Fig. 197 may be made to serve the same purpose. 



Fig. S6S 




Fig. 263 




218. A Chase-Mortise is a mortise elongated as shown by 
Fig. 263. Its purpose is to admit a cross- timber between 
two timbers already fixed. When the cross-timber is in place, 
that portion of the mortise which is unoccupied may be filled, 
and the joint thus made secure. 



JOINERY. 

219. The work of the joiner, unlike that of the carpenter, is 
usually where it must bear the test of close examination. It is, 
therefore, necessary that the several pieces of which a whole 
work is formed, be united by joints that are neat in appearance, 
or so made as to be hidden from sight. Such joints must be 
strong even where there is apparently but little strain upon 
them. Otherwise, the parts are likely to become loose from 
shrinking and swelling, and to expose unsightly seams. 

Some of the joints already described, while particularly adapted 
to uniting timbers in carpentry, may under given conditions be 



142 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



equally suitable for the smaller work in joinery. It may also 
be true that some that are treated in connection with joinery, 
are quite as useful in carpentry. As already stated, the classi- 
fication here used only serves to fix in mind a few general 
principles governing the adaptation of joints; it cannot be 
arbitrarily adhered to. 

The rule in carpentry that makes the simplest form of joint 
best, does not always hold in joinery, because the methods of 
the joiner admit of greater accuracy, and also because the 
pieces of material used are smaller, and consequently less 
affected by shrinkage. 



Beads and Moldings. 

220. Beads. — A single- quirked bead \^ shown by Fig. 264, a 
being the quirk; a double- quirked bead is shown by Fig. 265, 



P"ig. S64 




ITig. S6S 



and a staff, or angle, bead by Fig. 266. The term reeding is 
applied to a succession of beads, as shown by Fig. 267. A 
bead is said to be stuck when it is formed on the piece of 
material on which it is used, and planted when it is formed on 



TTis. 266 




Fig. ser 



a separate piece and glued or nailed in place, 
bead is indicated by the distance A, Y\g. 264. 



The size of a 



221. Beads are sometimes used wholly for ornament, but 
they are designed chiefly to conceal cracks by the shadows 
they cast. It is a principle in joinery, that when two boards 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



143 



are to be joined they must be made as one complete board, 
with the joint so concealed that no crack is left, either when 
first made or after shrinkage ', or there should be a very decided 
crack, which will appear to have been made intentionally. The 
first kind of joint is made by means of glue ; but, as the boards 
forming a surface of considerable width must have some free- 
dom of movement on account of shrinking and swelling tenden- 
cies, it follows that when large surfaces are to be covered, glued 
joints cannot be used. Under such circumstances, it is found 
best to make no attempt at a close joint, but to allow the 



K.ig. 2 68 , 



ITig. 269 



I 






ELEVATION. ELEVATION. ELEVATION. 

pieces to shrink and swell as they may, and depend upon 
beads to conceal the cracks. Thus the joint shown by Fig. 268 
would seem to have been intended for a close fit ; but since it 
is not, the opening is allowed to remain, and a bead applied, 
as shown by Fig. 269. The crack is thus converted into a quirk 
of a bead, and is not noticeable except on close inspection. 

222. A chamfer is a narrow surface produced, usually, at 
an angle of forty-five degrees with two other surfaces. Like 
the bead, it may be used for ornament, or for disguising cracks 
as shown by Fig. 270. 

223. A stop chamfer is one which does not extend the full 
length of the piece on which it is formed. See A^ Fig. 212. 



144 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

224. Moldings, while of the same character with beads, are 
larger and often much more complex in form. They may be 
stuck or planted. Among the most simple forms is the ogee, 
Fig. 271, which is frequently used as a finish for the edge of a 
projecting board — a table top, for example. 

225. A round nose, Fig. 272, is, perhaps, the simplest of 
all, and is especially useful where a projecting board is subject 
to usage severe enough to destroy sharp angles or small details, 
as is the " tread " of a stair. 

226. From a few simple forms, of which the two shown are 
types, have sprung the variety of styles, which, for the most 
part, have no designation but the number given them by the 

Fig.STl Fig.srS Kig.STS 



manufacturer. While most of them may be stuck, as is the 
ogee. Fig. 271, and the common forms shown by Fig. 273, 
they are generally planted. Fig. 2 74 shows a molding at A, 
planted on a plain surface ; at B, one planted in an angle, and 




at C, a rabbeted (bolection) molding which overlaps one of 
the pieces forming the angle. 

A fillet^ is a light strip of material used in a joint as a 
fastening, or, in connection with beads and moldings, as a 
means of ornamentation. 

227. In joining boards, use is frequently made of some outside 
support, which, though not considered a part of the joint, is 

1 Fillet, or thread. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. I45 

often the one element that makes the adaptation of the joint pos- 
sible. For example, two boards of a floor may be joined to each 
other in a variety of ways ; but they are both supported and 
retained in position by being fastened to the " flooring joist." 
A consideration of the joint between the boards, however, need 
not involve the joist except as a fastening. 

Heading-Joints, or Joints for uniting Pieces in the 
Direction of their Length. 

228. The length to which boards may be sawed, is, in prac- 
tice, limited only by man's abihty to handle and transport them 
with economy. For most purposes, the lengths of from ten to 
twenty feet which are supplied by the trade, serve as well as 
longer ones. They can be handled more easily — in other 
words, more cheaply — than boards of thirty or forty feet. 

Fig. 275 shows a square heading-joint, which is usually "cut 
under" a little, as indicated by dotted lines, to insure a close 
joint on the surface. 

Fig. s,*^S ITig. STG 

NAIlJ' / NAIL 




A splayed heading-joint is shown by Fig. 276. As a joint, 
this will seem more perfect than Fig. 275, but it is more diflicult 
to make, and the latter is in most places quite as satisfactory. 

Joints for uniting Pieces in the Direction of their Width. 

229. Joints of this class have two oflices to perform : first, to 
prevent shrinkage from making an open joint ; and, secondly, 
to distribute to adjoining boards, strain that may be received 
by any one of them at points between supports. 



146 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

23O0 Fig. 277 shows Sit A a plain butt-joint, which has nd 
provision against opening, and in which the boards do not sup- 
port each other ; it is, really, no joint at all. The same figure 
shows at B, C, and D, respectively, a filleted joint, a rabbeted 
joint , and a matched joint. Any of these may be beaded as 
shown by Fig. 269. The marring of the surface by nail heads 
may be prevented by "secret nailing,'' which is shown in 
Fig. 277. 




Joints of this class which have no support outside of them- 
selves, must be held by glue. 

231. A Glued Butt-joint, shown by Fig. 278, if well made, 
will be quite as strong in the softer woods as a glued matched 
or a glued filleted joint. It is difficult, however, especially if the 
boards are long, to keep the two pieces forming the plain joint 
in proper position while the glue is setting. Even if they are 
clamped, they are almost sure to slip, so that when the joint has 
finally become firm, the boards may have assumed a position 
similar to that shown. Fig. 278. The fillet, and the tongue and 

ITig. S*78 " 






groove {^B and D, Fig. 277) are useful in keeping the parts in 
place until the glue has hardened. Dowels may be used for 
the same purpose, Fig. 279. If they are placed at short inter- 
vals, and are well fitted, they will add strength to the joint. 

232. Cleating. — A cleat is a piece of material fastened 
across the width of a board to prevent its warping ; if the sur- 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



147 



face is composed of several pieces, the cleat is also designed to 
hold them together. It may be appHed to the back of the 
pieces, as shown by Fig. 280, or across the ends, as shown by 
Fig. 281. As the grain of the cleat is at right angles to that of 
the surface to which it is fastened, and since wood shrinks and 
swells more across the grain than with it, there is likely to be 



Fig. 280 



( ///'J\\l'|i'/|:ilili/]I 



P 






n 



'i,l 






Li] 



: [ 4l^^ATj^^^ 



•I 1'!'') 



|J*-CLEAT A 



Fig. S'81 A 



\i 



b^£rrAT^5S:S 






m 

1 m 
m 


1 

If 
1 

h 




l:=cnEAT-=B==^ 





some movement of one on the other, and the fastenings used 
to secure the cleat should be of such a nature as to allow it. 
Otherwise, the edges of the board will be rigidly held, and 
shrinkage will result in the formation of large cracks, by the 
splitting of the board somewhere near the center. Screws are 
undoubtedly the best fastenings, as they will yield, to some 
degree, without becoming loosened. Nails frequently answer 
every purpose ; and dowels are sometimes used. Glue is un- 
serviceable. When it is used alone, the cleats soon drop off; 
and when used with other fastemngs, it either gives way 
entirely, or breaks at intervals, causing local cracks. 

233. Side-cleating, Fig. 280, is the more effective of the two 
methods, because the cleat may be larger and, for this reason, 
the fastenings be applied to better advantage. But, when ex- 
posed to view, side cleats are unsightly, and are often objec- 
tionable because they increase the thickness of the piece as a 
whole. The proportions of the cleat may vary with the duty 
expected of it. Other things being equal, A will be more effec- 



148 



BENCH WORK IN WOODc 



tive than B, It is more difficult, however, to put screws or 
other fastenings through A than through B\ either may be 
fastened by screws inserted from the face of the board. 

234. End cleats are neat in appearance, and, when decided 
warping tendencies are not to be overcome, do good service. 
To supplement the fastenings, a narrow tongue may be formed 
on the board to fit a corresponding groove in the cleat, as 
shown in connection with B^ Fig. 281. 

If only one surface of a cleated board is to be made 
use of, — a drawing board, for example, 
— the strain on the cleat may be les- 
sened by a succession of saw cuts on the 
lower side, extending the length of the 
board, as shown by Fig. 282. By this 
means, the warping tendency of a seven- 
eighths-inch board may be reduced to 
that of a quarter-inch, or even a one- 
eighth-inch board. 



235- 




Section A. B. 



Joints for uniting Pieces at Right Angles. 

236. Butt-Joints. — A plain joint of this kind is represented 
by Fig. 283. The joint may be concealed by a bead, as indi- 
cated by dotted lines ; and, when the material is thick and it is 
desirable to prevent an exposure of end grain as much as possi- 
ble, the joint may be modified, as shown by Fig. 284. This 
form also may be beaded. When great strength is demanded, 

Fig. 28S 

Jlli 



Fig. 283 



ITig. S84 





ITig. S86 




I 

a housed joint may be made. Fig. 285. The sides and ends of 
troughs which are required to be water-tight, are frequently 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



149 



made in this way. If there can be no projection, as A, Fig. 
285, this joint may be modified as shown by Fig. 286, but it 
will lose in strength. 

237. Miter-Joint. — Fig. 287 shows a plain miter-joint. Its 
sole recommendation lies in the fact that it exposes no end 
grain, for, from a mechanical point of view, it is weak and 
faulty : weak, because difficult to fasten, and faulty, because, as 
the two pieces forming the joint shrink^ each will become 
narrower on the lines A, A, and produce the change of form 
sho\vn by the dotted lines B and B\ As a result of this change, 
either the angle C between the two pieces must become smaller, 
or the joint must open, forming a wide crack on the inside, 
which is represented by the triangle BDB\ 

Miter-joints between two pieces of different thickness are 



ITi 



. ssr 



jD 



Fig. 28S 



iTig. Qsg 




made in the form illustrated by Fig. 288. Occasionally this is 
used when the pieces are of the same thickness. Fig. 289 ; for 
while it has the advantages of the plain miter-joint, it is stronger 
and less affected by shrinkage. 



Fi£ 



290 



Fig. S91 





238. Glue, and brads or nails, the usual fastenings for miter- 
joints, may be supplemented by a fillet inserted as shown by 
A, Fig. 290, or by small pieces inserted in saw cuts which are 
made across the angle of the joint, as shown by A, Fig. 291. 



150 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

239. Dovetail-Joints have already been discussed (171-176). 
They can be made much stronger than any of the other angle 
joints herein considered. The plain dovetail, Fig. 199, is 
sometimes objectionable because it exposes end grain, but the 
checkered appearance of a well-made joint almost counterbal- 
ances this objection. In the lap-dovetail-joint, however, Fig. 
201, the end grain disappears from one face, and in the blind 
dovetail, Fig. 203, from both faces. The blind dovetail cer- 
tainly combines all that could be desired as far as strength and 
appearance are concerned ; but it is difficult to make. 

240. Mortise-and-Tenon Joints in joinery are different from 
those employed in carpentry, only in the proportions of their 
parts, and the accuracy with which they are fitted. When the 
thickness B, Fig. 292, of the pieces joined is the same, the 



3 



thickness A, of a simple tenon may vary from one-third to 
one-half that of the piece on which it is formed, practice 
tending toward the larger figure ; and its breadth C ought not 
to exceed seven times its thickness. For the thickness given. 
Fig. 292 shows a tenon of the greatest breadth allowable. The 
breadth is thus limited because the sides of the mortise derive 
their support from the solid material at its ends, and they 
become too weak for good service when the limit named is 

Fig» 393 



exceeded. Again, the tenon, if too broad, will not stand the 
pressure of wedging, but is likely to become distorted, thus 
putting additional strain on the mortise, and frequently causing 
it to split. See Fig. 293. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



iSi 



241. When the piece on which the tenon is to be formed is 
very broad, a single tenon, if employed, leaves wide shoulders, 
AB^ Fig. 294. These are open to objection, because of the 
tendency of the tenon piece to warp so that its surface at 
D will not agree with the surface of the piece it joins, at C. 
Under such circumstances a double tenon ^ Fig. 295, may be 
used. This will give the support that is needed, and will not 
violate the principle laid down in 240. Double tenons, how- 
ever, while they obviate one difficulty introduce another. The 
tenons are unyielding, and, if the piece is very wide, its shrink- 
age is likely to produce a crack between them, as denoted by 
the dotted lines A, Fig. 295. 

Fig. 29S 



Fig. 294 





242. Haunching is a device by which the tenon proper is 
supplemented by very short tenons, or " haunches," as indicated 
by the dotted outline. Fig. 296. The entire end of the tenon 
piece IS thus inserted in the mortise piece, and prevented from 
warping \ the danger of its splitting from shrinkage is not in- 
creased. If the piece shown by Fig. 294 were haunched, the 
imperfection it illustrates would be removed. 

Fig. 296 





243. Four tenons may be used in a single joint when the 
pieces to be united are very thick and wide. Fig. 297. By 
their use the parts are made small enough to prevent shrinkage 
from producing a bad joint. 



152 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

244. In forming a joint at the extremity of the mortise piece, 
a single tenon, if employed, must be cut away at one side, as 
shown by Fig. 298. Such a joint may be haunched, Fig. 299, 
or if the pieces are sufficiently wide, two tenons may be used. 
Fig. 213. 




^-^ — ^\ 




5^— 


-V 


/- - 


^_l.- 




m 



245. Mortise-and-tenon joints in joinery are capable of all 
the modifications of form which they are made to assume in 
carpentry. They may be housed, for example, or made in any 
of the oblique forms. 

Paneling. 

246. A Panel is a board, or a combination of boards, em- 
ployed to fill an opening within a frame. Thus, in Fig. 300 the 
pieces J^ constitute the frame, and the pieces A, B, C, and Z> 
are panels. The primary purpose of this arrangement is to 
give an extended surface of wood so constructed that the 
pieces of which it is made shall be well and neatly fastened, 
and, at the same time, the dimensions and the general appear- 
ance of the whole, be unaffected by shrinking or swelHng. To 
enhance the attractiveness of the surface, both frame and panel 
are frequently embellished, sometimes so richly that we lose 
sight of the mechanical necessity of the panel, and come to 
regard it as a means of decoration. 

247. The Frame taken by itself is, in general, made up of 
vertical and horizontal pieces united by mortise-and-tenon 
joints. Vertical pieces extending the full length of. any frame 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



153 



Kig. 300 




154 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

are called "stiles," and horizontal pieces, "rails." Each of 
these parts should be as narrow as is consistent with the degree 
of strength required. The width of a rail should never be more 
than twice that of the stile, which, as a rule, should not exceed 
four and a half inches. A consideration of Fig. 300 will show 
that, although the door is three or more feet wide, the only sur- 
faces whose shrinkage can affect the width are the two 4^-inch 
stiles. Large surfaces are covered, not by increasing the size 
of the parts, but by increasing their number. 
• The fillet e is inserted to cover the end of the tenons, which 
would otherwise show on the edge of the door. 

248. The panel may be either fastened to the back of the 
frame, or inserted in a groove, or " plow," made in the frame 
to receive it. Iii either case, provision must be made for 
shrinking and swelling. When fastened to the back, screws 
are usually found to make a sufficiently yielding joint. When 
fitted into the frame, no fastening is needed beyond that de- 
rived from its position. It must fit loosely enough to draw out 
on shrinking, but not so loosely as to rattle. 

In Fig. 300, ^ is a plain panel screwed to the back of the 
frame, and the frame about it is stop-chamfered. This is, prob- 
ably, the simplest combination of frame and panel. In com- 
mon with all panels fastened in this way, it is best adapted to 
work that is to be seen from one side only, as a closet door, 
or the permanent lining of a room. 

B shows a plain panel fastened to the back of a frame which 
is ornamented by a molding. 

C differs from B only in being let into the frame instead of 
being screwed to the back. The reverse face c may be orna- 
mented by a molding in the same manner as C, or by a 
chamfer. 

D shows a raised panel embellished by a rabbeted molding. 
The reverse face ^ is a plain raised panel. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION, 155 

A panel and frame may be plain on one side and orna- 
mented on the other, the ornamentation on one side may differ 
from that on the other, or the sides may be similar ; and any 
form of embellishment that may properly be applied to board 
surfaces, may be used in connection wich this work. 



FASTENINGS. 

249. Pins are employed principally as a means of holding 
tenons in mortises. In carpentry one pin, generally, is used in 
each joint, its diameter varying from one-sixth to one-fourth the 
width of the tenon. It is commonly placed at a distance from 
the abutting cheeks of the mortise, equal to one-third the 
length of the tenon. But to secure the maximum strength of 
the joint, its exact location in any particular case must be fixed 
with reference to the character of the material, and also to the 
relative thickness of the tenon and the cheeks of the mortise. 
In joinery, it is found best to use two or more pins, and, what- 
ever the proportions of the joint may be, these rarely exceed 
three-eighths of an inch in diameter. They are inserted very 
near the abutting cheeks of the mortise, so that that part of 
the mortise between them and the shoulder of the tenon, will 
not shrink enough to make an open joint. 

Square pins are better than round ones, but the latter are 
more easily fitted and, therefore, more used. 
Drawboring\i'3.% already been described (168). 

250. Wedges. — The most common use of wedges is illus- 
trated by Fig. 213 in connection with Exercise No. 14, which 
requires wedges to be dipped in glue, and driven between the 
tenon and the ends of the mortise. Wedges are also driven 
in saw cuts made in the end of the tenon for the purpose of 



156 



BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 



expanding it, as illustrated by Fig. 301, which shows at ^ a 
section of a joint before the wedges are driven, and at ^ a 
section of the finished joint. The saw cut should extend 
somewhat deeper than the point reached by the wedge. If 
the tenon is broad, or if a considerable increase in breadth is 



iFig. 301 





required, more than one wedge must be used. When there 
are more than two, a large one should be inserted in the center, 
and smaller ones on each side, as shown by Fig. 302, the 
wedges ready for driving at A, and the joint finished at B, 

251. Blind-wedgijtg is sometimes resorted to when the 
mortise does not extend through the piece. As shown by Fig. 
303, the mortise is enlarged at the bottom and the wedges 
started in ; then, as the pieces are driven together, the ends of 
the wedges strike against the bottom of the mortise and spread 
the tenon. When driven, the tenon cannot be withdrawn. 



:Fig. 303 




I^'ig. 304 



l^^ 



252. Keys differ from wedges in respect of their sides, which 
are parallel or nearly so. The key may be a single piece, as 
shown in the joint. Fig. 197, or, what is better, made as two 
wedges. Fig. 304. These may be put in place when in the 
relative position shown by A^B, after which, by driving them 
upon each other, as indicated by A, B, the joint may be tight- 
ened. The parallelism of the outside edges, which are in 
contact with the joint, is always maintained. 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



157 



253. Dowels are round wooden pins of small diameter used 
to strengthen a joint. They should be dipped in glue and 
driven at a tight fit into holes made for their reception. They 
may be carried entirely through one piece and into the other, 
Fig. 282, or inserted as shown by Fig. 279. 

Dowels may be made at the bench by the plane, or they may 
be turned. When planed, they will be improved in section if 
driven through a round hole in a piece of iron or steel. They 
are supplied by the trade, of all ordinary diameters, and in 
lengths of several feet, so that the consumer has but to cut 
them to lengths suited to his purposes, and point them. 

Shoe pegs serv^e well as small dowels. After being dipped in 
glue, they should be driven in brad-awl holes. 

Whenever fastenings are required to be so placed that sub- 
sequent operations bring the cutting tools about them, dowels 
are preferable to brads or nails, since they may be planed off 
without injury to the tool. 






A 



» 



254. Nails are classified according to the process by which 
they are made ; the material used ; their form and proportions ; 
and the use for which they are intended. Iron and steel are 
the most common materials, but when 
p^ig. 30S these would be destroyed by corrosion, 
copper and ^^ galvanized " iron are used. 
The forms of most importance to the 
bench-worker, may be classed as com- 
mon and finishing (or casing) nails. 
Their comparative proportions are illus- 
trated by Figs. 170 and 305, the former 
representing a comimon, and the latter 
a finishing nail. It is evident that the 
greater strength of the common nail 
makes its use desirable when there is sufficient material to re- 
ceive it properly, and when the appearance of the head on 



15^ BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

the surface is not objectionable. The finishing nail may be 
used in more delicate material, and makes a smaller scar on 
the work. 

Cut nails are so called because, in the process of manufacture, 
each nail is cut from a plate of metal. The plate has a width 
equal to the length of the nail, and a thickness equal to its 
breadth. Generally speaking, all nails of the form shown by 
Figs. 1 70 and 305 are cut. 

Wrought, as distinguished from cut nails, are those which 
without breaking will bend sufficiently for clinching. As the 
term suggests, such nails were formerly wrought under the 
hammer, it being impossible to obtain the requisite quality by 
machinery ; and they were so made long after common nails 
had ceased to be made by hand. In later years, however, 
wrought nails have in reality been cut, but from better material 
and by more perfect processes than those which have been 
technically called cut nails. 

Steel cut nails are now generally introduced in this country, 
and will in time take the place not only of the iron cut, but also 
^. of the so-called wrought nails : for, while less ex- 

I pensive than the former, they are equal in quality 

I to the latter. 
1 Wire nails, Fig. 306, are at this time coming 

\ into general use. Their strength and tenacity are 
unequaled. They are made from drawn wire in 
sizes varying from that of the smallest brad to 
that of the largest spike. 

255. The length of nails is indicated by numbers prefixed 
to the word " penny," as 6-penny, 8-penny, terms ^ which are 

1 It has been suggested that they once indicated the value or price of a 
given number of nails, 6-penny nails being sold at six pence per hundred, 
and 8-penny nails for eight pence per hundred. Another explanation is 
that fenny, as here used, is a corruption of pound, 6-penny meaning that 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. 



159 



now used arbitrarily, though, originally, they were doubtless 
significant. 

The length of nails of ordinary sizes is given as follows : — 

A 3-penny nail is one inch long. 



A 4-penny 


* one and one-fourth inches 


long. 


A 5 -penny 


* one and three-fourths " 


(t 


A 6-penny 


' two " 


(( 


A 7-penny 


* two and one-fourth " 


« 


An 8-penny 


" two and one-half " 


« 


A lo-penny ' 


* two and three-fourths " 


a 


A i2-penny 


' three 


if 


A 20-penny 


* three and one-half " 


it 



256. Brads are small finishing nails, in form similar to the 
nail shown by Fig. 305, the smaller ones being thicker, and the 
larger ones more slender. Their size is expressed in inches 
and fractions of an inch, and ranges from one-fourth of an inch 
to two inches. 

257. Tacks are useless for fastening pieces of wood to each 
other, but are indispensable when lighter material, like cloth or 
leather, is to be fastened to wood. They vary in form and size 
with the particular use for which they are intended. Their size 
is expressed by a number prefixed to the word " ounce." ^ The 
length of the more common sizes varies as follows : — 



A I -ounce tack 


is three-sixteenths of an inch long. 


A 2-ouixce 


* one-fourth '' " " 


A 3-ounce 


'* three-eighths " " " 


A 4-ounce 


" seven-sixteenths " *' " 


A 6-ounce 


' one-half 


An 8-ounce 


* nine-sixteenths " " " 


A lo-ounce 


' five-eighths *' " " 



a thousand nails weighed six pounds; 8-penny, tliat a thousand weighed 
eight pounds, and so on. 

^This expression may have once represented the weight of 1000 tacks; 
for example, 1000 tacks j\'' long, weighed one ounce, and were, therefore, 
called " one-ounce " tacks. 



l60 BENCH WORK IN WOOD. 

258. Common Screws are either bright or blued, steel or 
brass, round-headed or flat-headed. 

Bright screws are finished by poHshing. When blued, the 
luster of the polish has been taken off by heat or an acid, and 
a deep blue finish produced. Blued screws will not rust so 
easily as bright screws, and in most work they look better — 
considerations which apply with still greater force to the use of 
brass as a material instead of steel. 

Flat-headed screws, shown by Fig. 124, are the most com- 
mon. When used on finished surfaces, the heads should be 
sunk below the general level and the hole above them filled. 
When this is not convenient, round heads, which in the finished 
work will appear above the surface, are frequently employed. 

The size of screws is indicated by their length in inches or 
fractions of an inch, and by the diameter of the wire forming 
the body ; this diameter is expressed by a number which refers 
to a " standard screw gauge.'' The sizes of the screw gauge 
range from No. o, which represents a diameter 6f a little less 
than a sixteenth of an inch, to No. 30, which represents a 
diameter somewhat greater than seven-sixteenths of an inch. 
The size of a screw two inches long and a quarter of an inch 
in diameter would be written 2'' X No. 15. 

259. Glue is chiefly of two kinds, which are known as animal, 
and fish glue. Animal glue is a product obtained from the 
refuse of tanneries (bone, horn, hoofs, and bits of hide), which 
gives up the glutinous matter it contains when boiled under 
pressure. Fish glue is extracted from the spawn and entrails of 
fish. As prepared for the market, both are generally in the 
form of cakes, varying in thickness from an eighth of an inch 
to very thin chips, according to the quality and character of the 
glue. For bench work, these are dissolved in water, and the 
inixture applied hot. For convenience in dissolving the glue, a 
glue-pot is used, which is an arrangement of two vessels, one 



WOOD CONSTRUCTION. l6l 

within another, the inner being for glue, the outer for water. 
Heat is communicated in any convenient way to the water, and 
the water in turn heats the glue. The use of the vessel of 
water is to prevent the glue from burning. 

Gluing, — When ready for use, the glue should be hot and 
of the consistency of tjiin sirup. It must be appHed with a 
brush, in a thin, uniform coating to both surfaces that are to 
be joined. Too much glue will prevent the pieces from coming 
together in the joint. The application should be made as 
quickly as possible because the glue begins to cool and set as 
soon as it is taken from the pot; it will set less quickly if 
the pieces to be glued are warmed. After the pieces have 
been put together, they should be rubbed to squeeze out the 
surplus glue, and finally clamped in place and allowed to remain 
until dry — at least twelve hours. 

Liquid glues are supplied by the trade. They require no 
heating and are, therefore, always ready for use. 

When end grain is to be glued, it must first be sized, that is, 
coated with thin glue, in order to fill the pores of the wood, 
and allowed to dry before the joint is made. Otherwise, the 
glue that is put into the joint is drawn off into the grain and 
becomes useless as a fastening. 



